PROCEEDINGS THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, TORONTO, BEING A CONTINUATION OF "THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE AND HISTORY." NEW SEEIES. VOLUME II. 1883-1884. TORONTO PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE BY* COPP, CLARK A CO., COLBORNE STREET. 18 8 4. ERRATA. Page 127, § i, foot of page, ifele the words "which is concluded in the pre- sent issue of the Journal of Mathematics." Note. — The Paper of Prof. Young, on Principles of the Solution of Equations of the Higher Degrees, and the Resolution of Solvable Equations of the Fifth Degree, which was read before the Canadian Institute on the 3rd March, 1883, appeared subsequently in the American yournal 0/ n^ at hematics, from which it was set up for publication in the " Proceedings." Page i8o, lines 19, 22, 26, for " Hinos," read " Ainos." " 243, line 23, for "D rer," read " Diirer.'' " 250, line II, for " C. C, F, R. S. C." read " C. E., F. R. S. E." f VOL. II. MARCH, 1884. FASCICULUS No 1. PROCEEDINGS OF THB CANADIAN INSTITUTE, TORONTO, f^E.NG A Po>.T.NUATION OF THE "PaNADIAN ^OURNAL^' OF Science, |^iterature and fiisroRY. CONTENTS : I'.AGK. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING -•• COMPLEXION, CUMATE. AND RaCE. By J. M. BUCHAM, M. A • ^^ xM.D - ^^ THIRD ORDINARY MEETING / ^^ Land AND Labour. Uy W. A. Douglas, B. A ^^ FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING ' Our Federal Union. By D. A. O'Suluvan, M. A • FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING ■■" l* Transfer of Land By J. Herbert Mason. Ksq 34 SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING ^ -- ^g Some Thoughts on Thbrmotics. By J. M. Clark, h. a SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING.. .....••••••■_•■•■ •■ .'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'..'.... Jo NARY MEETIMU ■■ , frSE . «„ \rj>v: MArDOUGALL, U.K., t.K.&.t. Canadian Ca Bn-gland\s Oldest Colony. By T. B. Browning, M. A HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. Bv P H. Brvc, M.A.. M.B.. UR.C.P. .. S.E. 6a T O R O N T O : 188 4. OFFICERS OF THh CANADIAN INSTTTUrE J. M. BUCHA>f, Esq., M.A. GEORGE MURRAY. Es.. | joHN f.ANGTON. Esq., M-.A. GEORGE KEXNEDY, M.A.. LL.D. *''«'"'^" ----- - JOHN NOTMAN, Esq. ttfcorKinfl ^cmtarij - - . James bain, jun., Esq. €arrc0ponJ)in9 =S-ecrctorp - - w. H. vandersmissen, Esq., m.a. iTibrarian W. H. ELLIS, Esq., M.A.. M.B. ^"'^"*<"^ ...... GEO. E. SHAW. Esq., B.A. JHcmbcro of Ccrunril : REV. HENRY SCADDING, D. D. DANIEL WILSON. Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.C. C. W. COVERNTON, Esq., M.D. P. H. BRYCE, Esq., M.A., M.B., L.R.C.P. ><: .S.E. JAMES LOUDON. Esq., M.A., F.R.S.C. CHARLES CARPMAEL, Esq.. M.A., F.R.A..S., F.R.S.C 5l99tatant 5-frrctari) anti iTibrurtan : R. W. YOUNG, Esq., M.A. CEbttinjj ffinmmittfc : I M. BUCHAN, Esq.. M.A. , w. H. ELLIS. Esq., M A. MB REV. HENRY SCADDING. D.D. | qeo. E. SHAW. Esq.. B.A. P. H. BRYCE. Esq., M.A.. M.B., L.R.C.P. i%: S.E. LIBRARY PROCEEDINGS "^ THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, SESSION 1883—1884. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. The First Ordinary Meeting of the Session 1883-84 was held on Saturday, November 3rd, in the Library of the Institute, the President, J. M. Buchan, M. A., in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following list of exchanges, donations and purchases received from April ist to November 3rd, 1883, was presented : I.— DONATIONS. 1. Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, showing the progress of the work during the fiscal year ending June, 1880. 2. The Bystander, N. S., No. 1, January, 1883, by James Bain, jun., Esq. 3. Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the United States, for the years 1881 and 1882. 4. Statutes of Ontario for 1883. 5. The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1883, by J. A. GemmiU, Esq. 6. A glacial striated stone from boulder clay, shore of Lake Erie, Kingsville, Essex Co. , presented by David Boyle, Esq. 7. Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Public Works for the Province of Ontario, on Agriculture, and the Arts, for 1872, 1873, CO 1874, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882, (10 vols.) per Professor C' • J Buckland. f" 2 8. Report of the Superintendent of Insurance for the Dominion of Canada for the year 1882 ; from the Superintendent of Insurance, Dominion of Canada. 9. Catalogue of the Library of the Peabody Institute of the city of Balti more. Vol. I., containing letters A to C ; from the Board of Trustees of the Peabody Institute. 10. Check List of Insects of the Dominion of Canada, compiled by the Natural History Society of Toronto ; from the compilers. ^ r -^ 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 11. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 11 Nos. of various volumes to complete a set ; from the Anthropological Institute. 12. Report of Canadian Archives, by Douglas Brymner, Esq., Archivist, 1882 ; from the Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. 13. Memoires de la Socii^tt^ Academique Indo-Chinoise de Paris. Four publi- cations from the above Society. 14. The Literary Bulletin (11 Nos.) and Bibliographical Coiatributions (7 Nos.) of the Harvard University Library ; from the Librarian. 15. Four reports of the Peabody Institute, city of Baltimore. 16. Historical collections of the Essex Institute, 12 volumes and parts, com- pleting a set ; 13 pamphlets from the same institution. 17. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 10 parts and volumes to complete a set. 18. The Worcester Society of Antiquity, 5 Nos., completing a set. 19. The Journal of the Linnean Society, No. 70, Vol. XIII. , completing a set. 20. The Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, 8 volumes and numbers to complete a set. 21. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, 9 volumes and numbers ; Transactions of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences, 7 numbers, completing sets ; from the N. Y. Academy of Sciences. 22. From the Royal Geographical Society : The Journal of the Society, Vols. 47 and 48 ; the " Proceedings," 8 numbers, completing sets. 23. The Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 4 numbers. 24. Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, 5 volumes. 25. Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, six Annual Reports, and seven pamphlets on variovis subjects. 26. Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 19 parts, to complete a set. 27. La Societe des Ing^nieurs Civils, Paris : 12 Nos. Memoires et Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Socidt6 for 1882. 28. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington : 6 Vols. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vols. 18 — 23, completing a set ; 17 Vols. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vols. 11 to 27 inclusive ; 15 Vols, of Annual Reports of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for various years. 29. Victoria Institute : Vols. 6 to 16 of the Journal of the Transactions, to complete set ; sent to Messrs. Campbell & Son for transmission. 30. Institution of Civil Engineers : Vol. 57, to complete set. 31. The Canadian Entomologist, 3 Nos. to complete a set. IL— EXCHANGES. Canada : The Canadian Entomologist, Nos. 4 to 8, 1883. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. 10, No. 8. Bulletin of the Natural History Society of Quebec, No. 2. The Canadian Practitioner, Nos. 5 — 11. Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, session of 1882-83. The Weekly Health Bulletin, issued by the Board of Health of Ontario. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. O The Monthly Weather Review of the Meteorological Service, Dominion of Canada, April to September, 1883. Report of the Meteorological Service, Dominion of Canada, for the year ending December 31, 1882. Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society, Winnipeg, Catalogue of 340 Specimens from their Collection. Report and Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society for the years 1882-83. United States of America : The Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, April to November, 8 Nos. The American Journal of Science, April to November, 8 Nos. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 5 Vols., from the commencement in 1867, to 1882. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 21, Part 4, Vol. 22, Part 1. Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 3, Nos. 6 and 7. Science, from the commencement to No. 38. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Vol. 2, Parts 2 and 3. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, Vols. 4 and 5, 1880-82. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 7, Nos. 1, 2 Vol. 6, No. 4 ; and Vol. 3, No. 2. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 1, Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 14th Annual Report. Scientitic Proceedings of the Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Vol. 1, No. 4, and Vol. 2, No. 2. Worcester Society of Antiquity, No. 18, and No. 12, Part 4 ; No. 3. 1877 ; No. 12, 1880 ; No. 19, 1882. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Vol. 10, Nos. 5 and 6. Journal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. 17, Nos. 1 and 2. Account of the Semi-Centennial Celebration of the City of Buffalo. Report of the Director of the Observatory of Yale College for 1882-83. Harvard University Bulletin, No. 26. Mexico : Tomo 3, Entrega 2" and 4». England : Transactions of the Manchester G-eological Society, Vol. 17, Parts 5, 6 and 7. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, April to October, 1883. Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, April to October. Institution of Civil Engineers, Vols. 71, 72,' 73. Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Vol. 10, Part 5. Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, April to October. Journal of the Anthropological Institute, April to October, 1882. Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, session 1882-83. Scientific Roll for 1883. ■4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, 1882-83. Report and Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club. Annual Report of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society for 1882-83, Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, 1882. .Journal of the Linnean Society. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Nos. 9 and 10, Dec, 1882, June, 1883. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, Nos. 11, 12, 13. India : Records of the Geological Society of India, Vols. 15 and 22. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. 19. Palfeontologia Indica, Series 10, Vol. 2 ; Series 14, Vols. 1 and 3. New South Wales : Report of the Department of Mines. Minerals of New South Wales. New South Wales in 1881. Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales. New Zealand : Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute for 1882. France : Memoires de la Soci^te Nationale, des Sciences Naturelles de Cherbourg, Vol. 23, 1881. Bulletin de la Socii^tt^ Geologique de France, 1879 — 1883, 16 Nos. Memoires e^r. Compte Rendu de la Society des Ingenieurs Civils, April to October, 1883. Sweden : Acta Universitatis Lundensis, Vols. 15, &c., 7 Vols. Germany and Austria : Gottingen — Nachrichten von der K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Nos. 1—23, 1882. Miinchen— Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch-Physikalischen Classe der K. B. Akademie der Wisssenschaften zu Miinchen, Hefte 2, 3, 4, 5, Band 12, 1882. Sitzungsberichte der Philosophischen, Philologischen und Historischen, Classe K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen, 1882, Hefte 1, 2, 3, Band 1 ; Hefte 1, 2, 3, Band 2 ; 1881, 4 and 5. Astronomische, Magnetische und Meteorologische, Beobachtungen an der K. K. Sternwarte, for 1882-3. Wien — Jahrbuch der K. K. Geologischen Reichsanstalt for 1882. Verhandlungen der K. K. Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Nos. 12-18. Holland : Haarlem, Archives Du Musee Teyler, Seirie 2, 3 Part, 1882. Archives Neerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 1882, June 17, 3, 4 and 5 Pts. : 1883, June 18, 1 Pt. Copenhagen : Oversigt over det K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs 1882. Bulletin for 1882, No. 2. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. III.— PURCHASES. Life of Sir William Logan, by Harrington. The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist. Vols. 1, 5 and 7 to complete sets. The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, Nos. 1, 2 and 3, Vol. 10 ; No. 3, Vol. 11 ; Nos. 1, 2 and 3, Vol. 12 ; No. 1, Vol. 13 ; No. 3, Vol. 14. The Bystander, Nos. 2, 3 and 4. The American Journal of Science ; 31 numbers to complete set. And the various Periodicals mentioned in the last Annual Report, from April to November, 18S3. The President then delivered his Inaugural Address on COMPLEXION, CLIMATE AND RACE. Members of the Canadian Institute, Ladies and Gentlemen : I appear before you this evening to read the introductory paper of the session, but before doing so I wish to express my sense of the honour which my fellow members have conferred upon me by electing me a second time to the high office of President of the Canadian Institute. I wish likewise to acknowledge the heartiness of the aid and support which they gave to the Institute during last session, and ■to express the hope that the same unselfish and disinterested feelings which have hitherto prompted them to encourage what is done here for the advancement of science and the diffusion of knowledge may continue to operate in their breasts. The increase in membership, and the general success of the Institute during last winter, give rise in my mind, to good auguries for its prosperity during the session which commences to-night. Though the Council was unable during last ses- sion to accomplish everything that could have been wished, I think all will agree that it effected a great deal ; and I confidently anticipate that much of the work which is not yet finished will be overtaken before next May. The labour of putting our library and collections in order has proved much more serious than was anticipated, but a very large part of the work has been done, and our active and efficient Assistant-Secretary, Mr. Young, has already put them so far into •shape, that he is now in a position to say what we do, and do not possess, in most departments. I may add that the number of periodicals which we take, and that of societies with which we ex- •change publications have been considerably increased, and that, in PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. consequence, our facilities for affording the student of any special branch of knowledge an acquaintance with what the rest of the world is doing in it, are much improved. It may also be stated, that arrangements have been made whereby it is expected that a fuller and more regular printed i-eport of our proceedings will be given to our members. It seems to me that it would be inaj^propriate not to say a word on this occasion about the results that have flowed from a proposal made by Mr Sandford Fleming in a communication read before the Institute two or three years ago. I refer to the proposal to adopt certain meridians as standards of time — a proposal which is to take practical effect during the present month over a great part of this continent. The members of the Institute, seeing that they have in their corpo- rate capacity twice memoralized the government, and taken other action in this matter, and in their separate capacities have seconded Mr. Fleming whenever they have had opportunity to do so, cannot but feel pleased that so much has been accomplished ; and while I give utterance to that feeling of pleasure, I am sure that I am also speaking the mind of the Institute, when I express the hope, that this partial adoption of Mr. Fleming's scheme on this continent, may be but the prelude to its adoption in its entirety throughout the world. Some years ago I had the honour to communicate to the Institute the general views at which I had then arrived in regard to the very difl5.cult subject of the relations of complexion and climate. Though I cannot pretend that the partial solution which I then offered, was,, even as far as it went, entirely satisfactory, I still think that it em- bodied an element of truth. Since that time, I have gained, if not increased light, at least additional information, and it has occurred to me that a new paper on the subject, written, not so much with the object of advancing any special views which I may hold, as with that of pointing out the nature of the difficulties which crop up when one attempts to elucidate it, and the character of the questions, with the solution of which its elucidation is connected, might prove to be of some popular interest. This topic belongs to the domain of Anthropology, a science which has lately come into existence. The anthropologist might take for his motto that oft-quoted line of Pope's " The proper study of mankind is man," I FIRST OKDINARY MEETING. 7 but he would give it a meaning and an application which would astonish its author. Anthi'opology literally means, the science of man, and, if the term were construed in the full extent of its mean- ing, it would embrace all other sciences. It is not, however, so used, but is employed to designate the science which deals with the natural history of man. That is to say, Anthropology is a branch of Zoology. The great poet of the age of Queen Anne thought, and expressed the thought that the proper study of mankind is man, with the impli- cation that it is his moral nature which is especially worthy of inves- tigation ; the anthropologist of to-day, without leaving man's moral nature out of account, feels more at home in questions about the shape and size of skulls, the height, weight, and colour of different races, the character of their hair, the peculiarities of the different parts of their skeletons, the relations of languages, and the development of civilization on the earth. There is no one of the differences which separate one tribe or nation from another more striking than that of colour. In conse- quence, men are often classified in popular parlance into white and coloured. Blumenbach, about a century ago, divided mankind on the basis of colour into five races : the Caucasian or white, the Mongolian or yellow, the American or red, the Malay or brown, and the Ethi- opian or black ; and this classification has, in virtue of its simplicity, until recently been very generally accepted. It is, however, scien- tifically worthless. The so-called Red race varies in colour from chocolate brown to dark white. There are Chinese, Japanese and Coreans, which races, according to Blumenbach, are Mongolian, as white as many so-called Caucasians ; and the Zulus of Southern Africa, though ranked as Ethiopians, present examples of every variety of complexion from yellow to black. In place of Blumenbach's system a great number of classifications have been offered. These may be divided into those based on language, and those based on physical peculiarities. Both are alike unsatisfactory ; the former because they often bring together tribes and nations of very diflerenfc appearance; the latter because they separate races having related languages, and connect races whose languages are extremely different. In the Indo-European family, which is a division with a linguistic basis, are included the bronze- coloured Hindoo and the blonde Scandinavian. Among the Xantho- chroi, or blonde whites of Huxley, a race set apart on tlie basis of its 8 proc?:edings of the Canadian institute. physical characteristics, are included the Mingrelians of Circassia, the Scandinavians, and the Finns, three races speaking radically unlike languages, while the Samoyedes, whose language is related to that of the Finns, and the Persians and Hindoos whose tongues resemble that of the Scandinavians, are relegated to other classes. From facts which have occurred, and facts which we may see daily occurring in this country and the neighboring republic, we are led to the conclusion that the langviage a man speaks is not good evidence as to his descent. The descendants of the Dutch settlers of New York speak English. The Negroes of the South speak either Eng- lish or French. On the other hand physical peculiarities change very slowly, if at all. The Spaniard of South America, the English- man of Virginia, the Frenchman of Quebec seem to be precisely the same physically as the Spaniard of Spain, the Englishman of England, and the Frenchman of France. If the white race darkens within the tropics, or the Negro blanches under the influence of frost, the process is very slow. It would therefore seem the part of wisdom to accept a classification based on physical peculiarities. The most approved classification is that of Huxley, which is founded on the character of the hair and colour of the skin. He divides all mankind into Ulotrichi, that is, those possessing crisp or woolly hair, and Leiotrichi, or those possessing smooth hair. The colour of the former, that is, of the Ulotrichi, or the woolly-haired division of mankind, "varies from yellow-brown to the darkest hue known among men." Their " hair and eyes are normally dark, and with only a few excep- tions (among the Andaman Islanders) they are dolichocephalic," that is, long-headed. " The Negroes and Bushmen of ultra-Saharal Africa, and the Negritos of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago and of the Papuan Islands are the members of this Negroid stock." The Leiotrichi, that is, the smooth-haired division of mankind, are divisible into four groups, typified respectively by the Australians, the (Jhinese, the Swedes, and the Spaniards. 1. The first of these, namely the Australioid group, have dark skins, dark eyes, "wavy black hair, and eminently long skulls with well developed brow ridges, and projecting jaws." This group in- cludes the native Australians and Tasmanians, and some races found in India in the Dekhan. Professor Huxley is inclined to considej- the ancient Egyptians a modification of this type. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 9 2. The second, or Mongoloid group, have for the most part " yellowish-brown or reddish-brown skins, and dark eyes, the hair being long, black and sti'aight." Their skulls range between the extremes of long-headedness and broad-headedness. The group in- cludes " the Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese, Polynesian, Esquimaux and American races." 3. The third, or Xanthochroic group, have "pale skins, blue eyes, and abundant fair hair. Their skulls, like those of the Mongoloid group, range between the extremes" of long and broad-headedness. " The Slavonians, Teutons, Scandinavians and the fair Celtic-speak- ing people are the chief representatives" of this type, but it extends "into North Africa and Western Asia." 4. The dark whites, or Melanochroi, constitute the fourth group. They are "pale-complexioned people with dai-k hair and eyes, and generally long, but sometimes broad skulls." The group includes "the Iberians or Basques and 'Dark Celts' of Western Europe, and the dark-complexioned white people of the shores of the Mediter- ranean and of Western Asia and Persia." Professor Huxley is inclined to hold that the Melanochroi are not a distinct group, but result from a mixture of Australioids and Xanthochroi, or fair whites. It will be noticed that this classification brings together the widely separated Negroes and Negritos, neither of which races is maritime. The Australians are likewise ranked with the Todas and some other tribes of the Dekhan, though neither branch has reached a stage of civilization that would enable it to build ships and cross seas. From what Professor Huxley says in regard to the origin of the Melanochroi, or dark whites, it seems fair to infer that he would explain these difficulties by the hypothesis of a once continuous belt of Negro popu- lation from New Guinea to Africa, and a once continuous belt of Australioid populations from Australia to Britain. As these two belts cover to a great extent the same ground, we have another diffi- culty which we must solve by assuming the intrusion of either the one I'ace or the other, and either Australioid or Negro conquest. These difficulties suggest, that possibly after all, Huxley's classifi- cation does not indicate relationshijj or common descent. The Negroes and Negritos may resemble each other, not because they are of the same stock, but on account of the fact that the sum total of their sur- roundings, or in other words, of their environment, is similar, and 10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. produces similar effects upon those subjected to it. That is to say,. the Negrito of Malacca and the Philippine Islands may resemble the Yoloff and the Bantu of Africa, because his climate and mode of life are similar. If this is not the case, it is singular, that, over the vast area in which either the Negrito or the Australian must have supplanted the other, there should be no evidence of mixture of race, no remains of a mixed race evidently sprung from the union of the two. You may say to me, that one race exterminated the other. I say that in early times it was imjiossible to conquer and extermi- nate a 7-ace over a vast area. It is hardly possible now for a very civilized to extirpate a very uncivilized race over a large tract of country. Much less was it possible then, when all the devilish enginery of modern war had not been invented, and the process of killing one's fellow was slow, and very far from sure. We shall be still more doubtful of the value of the preceding classi- fication as a guide to community of descent, when we notice how the shape of the skull, which one would think would be as fixed as the colour of the skin or the character of the hair, varies in all but the Australioid division. We know that abundance of good food will in- crease the size of many of the lower animals, and that by a process of artificial selection from among the varieties naturally produced we can change almost any character to an indefinite extent. May it not possibly be the case that the shape of the skull, and the colour of the skin, hair, and eyes and other physical characters may be the results of that natural selection which Darwin puts forward as the operative cause in originating species. A great deal of light would be thrown on the question we have just raised, if it could be clearly shown that some physical character was either independent of, or dependent on the environment. For various reasons the character of colour seems to give greater promise of results than any other. We have a greater abundance of informa- tion in regard to it than any other, and it seems at any rate at first sight to vary according to a law. "The colour of the skin" in the different races "varies from the very pale reddish brown of the so-called white races, through all shades of yellow and red brown to olive and chocolate, which may be so dark as to look black." That of the hair, varies from the flaxen of some northern races, to a very deep brown oi bluish black. That of the eyes varies from a very light blue through different shades of blue. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 11 or grey, or green, to a more or less dark brown. Fair hair, and blue, green, or grey eyes, are never found except in conjunction with a white skin. The yellow hair reported as seen in some countries in conjunction with a dark skin, is the result of the use of a bleaching agent. Light eyes may occur with dark hair and a fair skin, and dark eyes with a fair skin and fair hair. The great majority of man- kind have dark eyes, dark hair, and a more or less dark skin, and Huxley's Xanthochroi, or the blonde whites of Northern Europe, are the I'ace that departs farthest from the common type. According to Professor Huxley, there must once have been some- where an unmixed blonde white race, by mixing with which the Australioids of the Mediterranean region and Great Britain became blanched to their present hue. There is not, however, what one would thiuk there ought to be on that theory, any country or part of a country inhabited ordy by blondes. Probably the country with the greatest proportion of fair whites in it, is Southern Sweden ; but here there is no inconsiderable admixture of men of the dark white race. On the conti'ary, there are countries inhabited solely by Melanochroi or dark whites. Such for example are Persia and Northern Arabia. These facts, namely, that there is no tribe or nation of unmixed blondes, while there are some of unmixed brunette whites, would seem to indicate, that the fairness of the people in the native country of the white race, is due to climatic causes, which produce their maximum effect in those parts where there are most blondes. At first sight nothing appears plainer than that complexion is a result of climate. The very dark races are near the equator, the light-colored ones in the temperate zones. The explanation seems to be at least as old as Homer that darkness of skin results from the intensity of the sun's rays. In his poems the term ^thiopes, meaning burnt faces, the root of our word Ethiopian, is used to designate an African tribe. But a very slight extension of our knowledge shows that this theory does not explain the facts. Side by side in the same country, as, for example, India, we find races of diflfering color who, apparently, have occupied the same soil for many centuries. On the forty-fourth parallel of latitude, which runs a little north of this city, we find, in the old world, the European brunette, the blonde Circassian, and the yellow Mongol, while on this continent we have the brown reddish- 12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. or yellowish Indian. On the equator itself we have the African Negro, the brown Malay of Borneo, and the yellow Tupi of the valley of the Amazons. North of the blonde Russian is found the yellow Samoyede, south of the brown men of equatorial Sumatra and Java live the blacks of Australia, and the two darkest native i-aces of this continent live near the mouth of the Colorado and that of the La Plata, each of which points is, speaking roughly, about thirty degrees distant from the equator. The people of the eastern continent, south of the Tropic of Cancer, are for the most part brown or black. Divide what is north of the tropics into two halves by the seventy-fifth parallel of longitude and those to the west are white, those to the east yellow. The inhabit- ants of the islands of the Pacific vary from the light yellow of the Japanese to the chocolate brown of the Papuans. In America the Haidah Islanders and the aborigines of the neighboring parts of Alaska are almost white, the California and Arizona Indians are dark brown ; the Tupis and Guaranis that occupy the valleys of the Orinoco and the Amazons, are yellow ; the Peruvians, and the aborigines of La Plata and Patagonia, are brown. The darkest of these, the Charrnas, who lived near the mouth of the La Plata, have sometimes been described as black. The variations within a short distance are often very striking. There is more dark hair in Wales than in England in the same latitude, but the proportions of dark eyes are reversed. In Wales, in Ireland, and in Brittany, dark hair and blue eyes are very frequently combined, and this has been supposed to be due to Celtic influence. In Ireland, according to Poesche, ninety per cent of the people have bluish-gray eyes. In Teutonic countries blue eyes ai'e more abundant than gray ; in Slavonic countries the reverse is the case. In Switzer- land the people of the mountains are darker than those of the valleys. In Bavaria the inhabitants of the low-lying country, near the Danube, are the darkest. In Transcaucasia those who live near the Black Sea are blonde, those near the Casi)ian yellow, — between, there are dark whites. Blondes are found sporadically among a large number of the races of the Northern Hemisphere. That some of the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands were blonde, is proved by their mummies. If we may trust the I'ecently discovered picture of the mother of King Amenhotep IV., who reigned in Egypt, probably 1700 B.C., she was a blonde. At any rate, fair-haired and light-eyed FIRST OKDINARY MEETING. 13 people occur at this day in considerable numbers among the inhabitants of the nionntainoiis parts of the Barbary States. The Jews, almost everywhere, present specimens of the blonde and brunette types. The Ghelankis at the south end of the Caspian, the Nestorians of Persia, and the Kurds of the highlands between Turkey and Persia, are partially blonde. Many of the Turcomans who live just east of the Caspian Sea, though Turk by race and language, are blonde ; while the Persians to the south and the Tadjiks to the east, though Indo- European in speech, are brunette. Some of the Indo-European tribes in Afghanistan, and on the upper Indus, afford specimens of faii'-haired and blue-eyed men. In short we may say that Xantho- chroi occur from the Arctic Ocean to the Sahara, and from the Atlantic to the Indus, in greater or smaller numbei's, and that occasionally beyond these confines, among the Chinese or Coreans, or even the Indians of Northwest America, individuals may be met with, of pure blood, who exhibit either light eyes or fair hair. For example, the Spanish discoverers of the Thlinkeets of Alaska, expressly note the fact that some of them had blue eyes. " Eran de color bianco y habia muchos con ojos azules." They were of a white color and tliere were many with blue eyes, says Perez. According to the Abb^ David there is to be met with in S^tchuan, one of the northwestern provinces of China, an aboriginal race with light eyes and hair often chestnut or yellowish. During the last twenty-five years considerable quantities of statis- tics, relating to the colour of the hair, eyes, and skin, have been collected in various countries. In Great Britain Dr. Beddoe's figures show that the number of blondes increases as we go north ; in France the fairest part of the population is in the north and north-east ; in Belgium in the north ; in Gallicia, a part of Poland, the people are fairer in the north. In Germany the observations made on school children show that Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost province, is the fairest. The next fairest is not, as might be expected, the next most northerly province. East Prussia, but Pomerania, and the third in the list is Hanover. The geographical position of these provinces naturally leads to the inference that the Scandinavian Peninsula is the seat of the fairest population in the world. The blonde centre is probably somewhere in the southern half of that peninsula, as the Lapps in the north, though partly fair, are partly brunette. In every '14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. direction north, south, east, or west from this central point the pro- portion of blondes decreases, and that of brunettes increases. Many theories have been advanced to account for these anomalies. The common explanation is that they are due to race. If so, how is it that we have no aboriginal blondes between the tropics, and no aboriginal blacks north of 35° N. L. It has been thought that civilization produces fairness ; but this view is refuted by many facts, the civilized Peruvian Indians, for instance, being dax'ker than their savage congeners on the Amazons. It has been asserted that the upper classes are fairer than the lower ; but, though this is the case in Europe and India, the opposite state of things existed in the Sandwich Islands, and still exists in some parts of Africa. A moun- tain climate has been supposed to produce a light complexion, but the highlanders of Scotland and Switzerland are darker than the natives of the plains of the same countries. Indeed, a pretty good case could be made out for the theory that low, flat countries produce fair complexions. South America, for example, which has no abori- ginal negroes, is much less raised above the level of the sea than Africa. But neither is this theory consonant with all the facts. The explanation has been sought in diflerences of diet, and it has been conjectured that a superabundance of carbon in the food might lead to the deposit of some of it in the skin. Races then, that live largely upon fat or oily food ought, on this hypothesis, to be darker than others in the same latitude. But there are no facts to show that the Welsh or the Irish live more on carbonaceous food than the English or the Dutch, and yet there is a considerable difference in complexion. Dr. Livingstone thought that a moist climate produces dark skins ; D'Orbigny considers it the cause of fairness. Poesche, in his work on the Aryans, seems to consider fairness to be due to the absence from the soil of the elements from which the pigment that gives the yellow, brown, or black shade to the skin is foi-med. Darwin, Professor Huxley, M. de Quatrefages and others think it probable that racial distinctions owe their origin to the selective operation of the prevailing diseases of particular climates. Assuming, what is amply supported by facts, that individuals slightly diverging in different dii-ections from the type are constantly being produced, it is obvious that if a dark or a light complexion be correlated with power to resist a particular disease or group of diseases, a white x'ace may, by natural selection, be gradually developed from a coloured one. FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 15 or vice versa. M. de Quatrefages has suggested that the malarial fevers of Africa have wrought this effect there, and that phthisis has been the agent in the north of Eui-ope. It certainly is the case that the tropical regions of Africa are very unhealthy for whites, and that the Negro dies out north of the parallel of 40° in both hemispheres; but this does not show that both races might not be acclimatized by slow degi-ees without loss of colour. In other words, no reason has been shown for thinking that it is to the complexion, and not to some other racial peculiarity that the relative immunity from certain mala- dies is due. Of these various views, I am inclined to hold that that of D'Orbigny and Schomburgh is most in accordance with the facts. Europe which is the seat of the white man is the moistest of the continents ; the fairest of North American Indians live on the humid coast and islands of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia ; where there are unbroken forest regions in South America, and there- fore a comparatively moist climate, the aborigines are yellow ; where prairies and droughts prevail, they are brown. As compared with Hindostan, Farther India is moist, and its inhabitants are less sombre in hue. The brown men of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Celebes inhabit forest-covered, and therefore comparatively humid islands, the black races of Papua and Australia roam over grass-clad plains, whose existence proves the relative dryness of the air. But neither is this hypothesis in accord with all the facts. The co exist- ence of races of different hues in India, and of the brown Malays, and black Negritos in the Philippines and Malacca, cannot be ex- plained by it. The west coast of Great Britain is incomparably the damper, but yet the inhabitants of the east are decidedly the fairer. Some portion of these, and similar facts, may be explained by sup- posing that certain introduced races have not become completely accli- matized. It might, for example, be held that this is the cause of the relative fairness of the higher castes in India. It might too, be held that if many thousands of years were allowed, the blonde inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland would disappear, and be replaced by a homogeneous race of dark whites, similar to the pre-Celtic inhabitants of those islands. There is some evidence tending to support this view. In particular, I may mention Dr. Beddoe's observations on the colour of the eyes of women, from which it appears, that the proportion of dark-eyed women in England is growing larger. 6 PROCEEDIXGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Another explanation of some of these facts, that possesses a certain degree of probability, is, that difference of colour in the same country is due to mode of life. It may be maintained that the Samangs of Malaca, and the Aetas of the Philippine Islands are darker than the other inhabitants, because the poorness of their dwellings, and their consequent practically constant exposure to sun or wind, renders it an advantage for them to be dark. Another explanation to which I shall make refo'ence later, is that humidity is probably not the sole climatic influence that operates. I may say here that I do not attach importance to the direct in- fluence of climatic conditions. It is, indeed, a matter of common observation that these produce considerable efiects on the individual. Pruner-Bey, for example, states that he has noticed that " the Euro- pean acclimated in Egypt acquires after some time a tawny skin, and in Abyssinia a bronzed skin ; he becomes pallid on the coast of Arabia, cachectic white in Syria, clear brown in the deserts of Arabia, and ruddy in the Syrian mountains." But there is no proof that these cutaneous changes are inherited. If, however, it can be shown that a particular kind of skin is better than others for resisting the deleterious influences of a given climate, it stands to reason that those members of a race whose skins vary in the direction of this type, will, in each generation have the best chance of surviving and begetting children, and that by the continued increment of successive vai'iations in the same direction, the skin and the climate will ulti- mately be brought into accord. The skin consists of two layers : the inner, dense and fibrous, furnished with blood vessels and nerves, called the derma or true skin ; the outer, horny, nerveless and bloodless, called the epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin. The cells which compose the latter originate in the rete Malpighii, its lowest part, are gradually forced outward by new cells and finally exfoliate. In some of these epidermic ceUs a pigment is found which varies in different races, but always con- tains a yellow element. The hue of the skin does not depend on this colouring matter alone, but is a compound effect resulting from the white of the dermis, the i-ed of the blood in the minute vessels near the surface, the colour and quantity of the pigment, and the thickness of the cuticle. Where the cuticle is thick, the colour of the pigment will predominate over the other elements on account of the greater depth of pigment-cells. Where it is thin, and the colouring FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 17 matter light, the tint of the skin will be much affected by any change in the supply of blood to the capillai-ies at the surface of the body. This is the reason why the whites alone can turn pale and blush. Closely related to the pigment of the skin are the colouring matters of the eye and hair. Dark-skinned people usually have black eyes and hair ; fair hair and blue eyes are seldom found except in con- junction with a fair skin ; and the eyes and hair of albinoes, in whom the pigment of the skin is wanting, are likewise destitute of colouring matter. The pink hue of their eyes is due to minute blood-vessels whose colour is masked in ordinary organs by the pigment of the ii-is. It is noteworthy that the colouring matters of the epidermis and the iris serve a very important purpose ; they protect the tender un- derlying parts from the injurious effects of too much heat and lio-ht. Albinoes everywhere find it necessary to protect their skins and eyes from the action of the sun's rays. In warm countries they seldom go out except at night. There is this difference between them and other men, that long-continued exposure to the sun, which ordinarily develops a condition of the skin capable of resisting its rays, does not do so in their case. It may here be remarked that, the greater the quantity of the pigment, the less transparent will the epidermis be and the more effective will it be as a protective agency. On the con- trary, the smaller the quantity, the greater the transparency, and the less the protection. Under certain circumstances the exposed parts of our bodies become tanned, that is to say, an increase in the colouring matter which they contain takes place. Dark whites tan brown, fair whites tan red. The change is caused by the influence of the sun or wind, and is obviously protective in its character, as the unpleasant feelings which result from the first exposure do not recur when we have become thoroughly tanned. This fact, I believe, contains the key which explains the distribution of colour among the races. The climate, or the mode of existence of most races, renders it an advantage to them to begin life more or less deeply tanned. As an excretory organ, it is the function of the skin to discharge water, carbonic acid and urea — the first in large, the others in small quantities. Perspiration, or the excreting of water with some saline matter in solution, is effected in two ways. In the first place, sudoriparous glands, imbedded in the true skin, secrete sweat from, 2 18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the V)loocl. This is conveyed to the air by minute ducts passing through the epidermis. It is obvious that, the less transparent the outer skill, the less light and heat will be transmitted to excite these Sflands into activity. In the second place, there is a continual transudation of sweat from the minute vessels of the surface of the body through the epidermis at every point. The thicker or more oily the scarfskin, the less will the amount of this transudation be. If it be both thick and oily, as in many dark races, the quantity transuded will be reduced to a minimum ; if it be thin and not oily, as in the fairest members of the white race, transudation will be copious. The amount of transuded sweat depends, however, not only on the thinness of the cuticle, but also on the degree to which the air in contact with the body is saturated with moisture ; for there is a limit to the quantity of vapour which the air can absorb. This limit varies with the temperature, warm air absorbing more than cold. It is also to be remarked that perspiration relieves the body of heat as well as of moisture, and that a dark skin may serve as a means of radiating heat in climates in which a large loss of moisture is a disadvantage. Such being the nature of the skin, I now proceed to inquire what kind of it will best suit particular regions. For this purpose climates may be classified as — I. Arctic. II. Moist temperate. III. Dry temperate. IV. Moist tropical. V. Dry tropical. 1. When the skin is exposed to great cold, perspiration by tran- sudation is accelerated. The frosty air, being raised many degrees in temperature by contact with the body, becomes very dry, and greedily drinks in its moisture. At the same time the body loses not only the heat which the air carries off, but also that which is rendered latent by the evaporation of the sweat. As a protection against the injury which a too rapid loss of perspiration and heat may inflict in an arctic climate, a thick integument is desirable. It is, I believe, the fact that arctic races have thick skins. At any rate M. de Quatre- fages says that cases of dry rough skins occur most frequently among the polar tribes. This I take to be a result of the thickness of the FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 19 cuticle, just as, on the older parts of a tree, I take the roughness of the bark to be a consequence of its thickness. But why sliould the eyes, skin and hair of the Polar tribes be darker than those of the blonde Europeans who live to the south, of them 'I I suggest that it is on account of their perpetual or almost perpetual snows. It is a well-known fact that the rays of the sun reflected from the Arctic snows tan Europeans and produce snow- blindness in them. From these effects the natives enjoy, I under- stand, comparative immunity, which I think it fair to attribute to the colour of their skins and eyes. The hair, being anatomically a part of the skin, varies with it in colour. II. By a moist temperate climate I mean one occurring in a temperate zone in which the air constantly contains a large amount of moisture. Humidity does not to any considerable extent depend on the amount of the annual rainfall. The annual rainfall of London is twenty and one-half inches, that of Toronto twenty-seven inches ; yet the air of the former place is incomparably more humid. Countries in which the air is generally moist are distinguished from others in the same latitude by the limited range of the thermometer. This is due partly to the fact that the vapour of water cannot be so rapidly heated or cooled as air, and partly to the check which the presence of haze, mist, or cloud in the atmo- sphere puts upon radiation. A moist temperate climate is also wai-mer than others in the same latitude, for it owes its existence in every case to breezes from warm seas. Breezes from cold seas can- not produce a true humid temperate climate, because when they strike the land in summer they will be raised in temperature and rendered dry. In humid temperate climates, since the rays of the sun, falling obliquely through a moisture-laden atmosphere, lose much of their light and heat, much pigment is not needed. The vapour-clogged air does not facilitate perspiration, therefore a thin epidermis is desirable. The combination of a thin epidermis with little pigment will give a white complexion. The best example of a moist temperate climate is furnished by the countries lying ai-ound the North and Baltic Seas, which are appar- ently the native land of Huxley's Xanthochroi. The central part of this district, namely Southern Sweden, is probably the place where there are most blondes. But Great Britain, though more humid, 20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. is less blonde than Germany Denmark and Sweden in the same lati- tudes, and in Great Britain and Ireland, though the humidity increases, the fairness of the population diminishes as we go west. Two explanations of this difficulty besides that of race, which last from the point of view of this paper is no explanation at all, have suggested themselves to me. One is that, as wind is a tanning agent, it may possibly be the case that Ireland is more windy than England, and England than Denmark and North Germany. But I have na facts to either bear out or overthrow this hypothesis. The second is that the fairest type of blonde is produced by the humidity caused by evaporation from fresh or nearly fresh water. A glance at the map shows that the greater part of the blonde area is low and swampy, and that the eastei'n and faii-est part of it dei-ives much of its vapour from the half-fresh Baltic Sea. This hypothesis is supported to some extent by the case of Mingrelia, the westernmost part of Transcaucasia, and the source whence the unspeakable Turk obtained the blonde beauties with which he used to stock his harem, the mois- ture of this country being derived from the lialf-fresh waters of the Black Sea. , III. By a dry temperate climate I mean one occurring in a temperate zone in which the atmosphere is usually dry. Countries in which this climate prevails are distinguished from others in the same latitude by the greater range of the thermometer. Their summers are hot and their winters cold. As a protection against the greater heat and brightness of the sun, a less transparent cuticle than that which serves the purpose in humid temperate regions is necessary. To prevent the too rapid withdi-awal of the fluid contents of the capillaries by the dry air a thick epidermis is required. The combination of a thick cuticle with a quantity of pigment such as will satisfactorily modify the intensity of the sun's rays will produce various shades of yellow and brown. A good example of a dry temperate climate is furnished by the prairie regions of North America. The aborigines of this district were brown with the exception of the Mandans, among whom a curious kind of albinism seems to have been astonishingly prevalent. IV. — By a moist tropical climate, I mean one occurring in or near the torrid zone, in which there is no dry season. In such a climate vegetation will be luxuriant all the year round, and man will live in the shade of dense forests, in a steaming and enervating FIKST ORDINARY MEETING. 21 atmosphere, where the temperature will be high, but will vary little. Though the rays of the sun will descend vertically upon him, yet their power will be diminished by the vapour contained in the air, and he will not need so dense a pigment to protect him as the inhabitants of other tropical regions. Add to this, that a thin epidermis will facilitate the perspiration which a moisture-laden atmosphere tends to check, and we come to the conclusion that the natives of such ■countries will be distinguished by comparatively fair complexions. As an example of a moist tropical climate we may take the valley of the Amazons and point to the fact that its aborgines are lighter in colour than those of rainless Peru. Y. — On the contrary in a rainless tropical climate, or in one ■with a well-marked dry season, the rays of a vertical sun will con- tinually or for considerable periods descend in all their power, and the densest pigment and the thickest scarfskin will be needed. In rainless Nubia, for example, the inhabitants, whether of Semitic, Hamitic, or Negro stock, ai-e alike black. The part of A.frica south of the Great Desert, will exemplify the case of a tropical climate with a dry season. This immense region consists essentially of a strip of low coast land, and an im- mense level central depressed surface with a more or less elevated rim surrounding it. The inhabitants of the coast and the central depression are very black, those of the rim lighter in color. Dr. Livingstone attributed this to the greater humidity of the lower regions. But it is obvious from theoretical considerations that the elevated rim must be more humid than any other part of the contin- ■ent. During the dry season, the sea-breezes, when they strike the -coast, will be raised in temperature and consequently deposit no moisture until cooled by being forced upward when they come against some elevated land. The meterological observations of travellers show the facts to accord with this view. There are black men in Africa, in India, and in Australia and some of the adjacent islands, because these countries all have long, pronounced dry seasons. Owing to the peculiar formation of the -continent of America, its tropical regions are, for the most part, very humid, and consequently very dark natives are found within them only in Peru, which possesses a very dry climate. An immense number of facts might be adduced in support of this .theory ; but there are some which it fails to explain. Nevertheless, 22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. SO great is the mass of evidence showing that humidity has been an efficient agent in producing fairness that I mnst hold to the belief that there is something in the views which I have just attempted to ex- press. Yet, whatever may have been the causes which have given rise to the diversity of complexion that exists among mankind, it is clear that the colour of each race is now so fixed, that climatic influences change it very slowly. Neither the negro nor the white man on thia continent has varied much in the direction of the Indian. Both white and negi'o have, however, been here only a few centuries. A much longer time has elapsed since the populous and frozen North sent her barbarian hordes across Rhene and the Danaw to destroy the Roman empire, but yet, wherever we have historical reasons for expecting to discover traces of German blood, we find a relatively, large number of blondes. The land of the conquered countries, as a matter of course, fell into the hands of the German invaders, and from them sprang a new aristocracy. It is remarkable that, to this day, the nobility and gentry of every part of Christian Europe are exceptionally fair. The conquerors naturally settled in the greatest numbers in the most fertile parts ; it is precisely in the mountains and the other comparatively infertile districts that the brunette whites are most numerous. In Switzerland, for example, there is a greater percentage of blondes in the more level parts in the centre, than in Mount Jura on the west, or the Rhaetian Alps on the east. Similar facts meet us in England and France. Wherever there is I'eason to believe that thei'e has been a settlement of Germans or Scandinavians, the complexions are to this day comparatively fair. Th" nine centuries that have elapsed since the Northmen settled in Normandy have not made their descendants as dark as the neighbour- ing Bretons ; nor have thirteen hundred years made the West Saxon of Somerset and Gloucester similar in complexion to the Welshman of Glamoi'gan and Caermarthen. Facts like these have led many ethnologists and anthropologists to conclude, perhaps, too hastily, that colour is the least variable of all the characters that mark a race. This, if true, leads with consider- able probability, to the hitherto little noticed, but most important conclusion, that the original seat of the Aryan race was in Europe, and on or near the shores of the Baltic Sea. I propose now to ask your attention while I show how this conclusion follows, and very FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 23 briefly enquire whether what is known from other sources about the Aryans is consonant with it. It is well-known that philological investigation has established that nearly all the European, and some of the more important Asiatic languages are descended from a common source, and that these are at the same time related to each other in such an intimate manner and so widely different from all other languages, that scientific men feel justified in setting them apart in a family by themselves. To this family belong the Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic, and Romance languages, together with the Greek, the Armenian, the Persian, the Hindi, and others. The language whence all these have sprung is the Aryan, and it follows as an almost necessary corollary, that wherever an Aryan language is now spoken, there must be some admixture, however slight, of Ai-yan blood. There is therefore a community of speech between all Englishmen and all Hindoos, accom- panied by a community of blood between some of each race. With the exception of the Az-yans of India, the Aryan i^aces are white, and, as the sacred books of the Hindoos represent their ances- tors as an intrusive race in conflict with dark aborigines, it is fair to assume that their present colour is due to an admixture of non-Aryan blood, this 250stulate of course being always granted that climate has no appreciable effect upon the colour of a race that has once established for itself a separate and distinct type. But as has already been stated, there are two white races, the brunette and the blonde. These are intermingled in various proportions in almost every country in which whites are to be found. We have seen that the blondes are most numerous on the shores of the Baltic and North Seas, and that in whatever direction, whether north, south, east, or west one recedes, from these shores, the proportion of brunettes increases. Now, assuming that racial peculiarities are unchanged, except by inter- mixture, were the original Indo-Europeans a blonde or a brunette race, or one composed like most of the modern Indo-European nations of an intermixture of the two .? The following facts seem to show that the original Indo-Europeans must have been either purely or largely blonde. There are only three Indo-European races, the Hindoos, the Persians, and the Armenians, in which no blondes occur, and these occupy countries too far south to be the original home of the race, since a variety of evidence shows that it must have been sitviated in a tolerably cold climate. 24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Among all the others blondes occur in greater or smaller proportions. In western Europe, wherever we have a lai-ge proportion of dark - whites, we have a good deal of evidence to show that there has been a mixture of the Indo-Europeans with the previous occupants of the soil. In Italy there were, in historic times, Etruscans and Ligurians, one, or both of which laces were non-Aryan. In England, France, and Spain the evidence is strong that suppoi'ts the theory that there is still a large amount of Iberian or Basque blood in the population. Now, if the original Aryans were blonde it is natural to look for their seat where there is to-day the largest fair- white population, that is, in the neighborhood of the Baltic and North Seas. Here, as a matter of fact, we find the Lithuanians, whose language of all living languages most closely approximates to the original Indo-European. Our Aryan ancestors were pre-eminently a cattle-rearing race, and there is a strong probability that the domestic cattle of Europe are descended from its native vvild stocks. As they knew something of the sea, and apparently nothing of the camel or tiger, it does not appear probable that Eastern Turkestan was their original home. Western Turkestan, though bordering on a sea, is precluded by the infertility of its soil, and its utter unsuitability to the kind of life we know the Aryans must have led. It is probably ti'ue that the Persiansi and Hindoos lived together at one time in Eastern Turkestan, but that does not prove that they had not come there from some other place. Indeed, the hypothesis that Turkestan was the original seat of the Aryans, seems to have no better foundation than the belief that the west has been peopled from the east. It may be true that the tirst men who lived in Europe came from Asia. But that must have been at a period antecedent even to the very remote date at which the Aryan race developed its special charactei-istics. Within the historical period, at any rate, there have been as many advances of Eui^opeans into Asia as of Asiatics into Europe. At the very beginning of written history we hear of a Persian invasion of Euro- pean Russia in retaliation for a previous invasion of Persia by Scythians from Russia. After the Persians' failure to establish themselves in Euroj)e, the G-reeks established themselves in Asia and hellenized it more or less completely to the head waters of the Ganges. The reaction came when the Huns and Saracens penetrated to France. From the battle of Tours, in which Charles the Hammer turned back the Mohammedans, to the siege of Vienna, two hundred years ago, FIRST ORDINARY MEETING. 25 the contest between the west and east went on with varying results; but since John Sobieski drove the Turks out of Austria the tide has turned. The Turk is on the eve of being driven out of Europe, half of Asia belongs to Russia and England, and European ideas and blood are everywhere changing the character of that con- tinent. As far as history informs us, population has moved as often from the west to the east as from the east to the west. The first opponent of the Asiatic origin of the Indo-Europeans, as far as I know, was one Schulz, who published a book on the source of the German race in 1826. The next considerable protest came from Omalius d'Halloy, who objected mainly on physiological grounds. He was followed by that eminently original thinker and .suggestive writer, R. G. Latham, whose objections were philological. His argument is very clearly put in the following words : *' Where we have two branches of the same division of speech separated from each other, one of which is the lai-ger in area and the more diversified by varieties, and the other smaller and compara- tively homogeneous, the presumption is in favour of the latter being derived from the former rather than the former from the latter. To deduce the Indo-Europeans of Europe from the Indo-Europeans of Asia, in ethnology, is like deriving the z'eptiles of Great Britain fi'om those of Ireland in herpetology." Since he wrote these words his views have been adopted by a number of Germans, among whom may be mentioned Geiger, Cuno, and Benfey. The two former of these, with perhaps some excess of patriotism, place the cradle of the Indo-European race in the heart of Germany. Oscar Peschel places it in the Caucasus, but this is evidently a compromise. Poesche places it in the Rokitno Swamp in the neighbourhood of Pinsk in West Russia. There is here about the upper waters of the Dnieper an immense swampy region, which is said on the authority of a Russian traveller, Mainow, to be re- markable on account of the general lack of colour in all organic nature. Cases of albinism are very frequent, the hoi-ses are almost all gray or light yellow, the leaves of the trees ai-e pale, and every- thing is dull and colourless. Mj'- conclusions are : — 1. That the causes which in early times developed the existing ^differences of colour were partly or wholly climatic. 26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 2. That two of these were distance from the equator and moistness of the air. 3. That there were other causes which have not been discovered. 4. That the colour characteristics of existing races change very slowly, if at all, under the influence of new climatic conditions. 5. That the agreement of two races in colour is no proof of com- munity of origin. 6. That the chief, perhaps the only point of origin of the blonde race was in Northern Europe. 7. That the Indo-Europeans were lai-gely blonde, and that their original home was near the Baltic Sea. After the address, Prof. Ramsay Wright, of University Col- lege, exhibited some new microscope objectives, by Gundlach, of Rochester, U. S., and by Zeuss, of Jena. SECOND ORDINARY MEETING. The Second Ordinary Meeting of the Session 1883- 1884,.. was held on Saturday, November loth, in the lecture-room, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following gentlemen were balloted for, and duly elected members. Alan Macdougall, C. E., F. R. S. E. ; Messrs. John McAree, Harry Walker, Frederick T. Butler, James Jardine, G. H. Robinson, M.A., J. M. Clark, B.A., A. S. Johnston, B.A., T. G. Campbell, B.A., JohnSquair, B.A.,. H. R. Fairclough, B. A., J. Warren Reid, B. A., J. C. Robertson, B. A., Capt. Gamble Geddes, A. D. C. The following donations and exchanges received since last meeting, were announced : 1. Minutes and Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, Vol. 74 Series 188'2-'83, part 4. Brief Subject Index to Minutes and Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, vols. 59 to 74. Series 1879-80 to 1882-83. 2. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute for 1868, 1872,, 1873, 1874. Vols. 1, 5, 6, and 7. 3. The Canadian Entomologist, vol. xx. No. 9 for September, 1883. THIRD ORDINARY MEETING. 27 A paper entitled " The Literature of English-speaking Canada" was then read by C. Pelham Mulvany, M.A., M.D., T.C.D. Among the writers reviewed were Prof. Watson, Mr. Le Sueur, Mr. Grant Allen, Prof. Dawson, Mr. R. W. Phipps^ Dr. Canniff, Principal Grant, Mr. Charles Dent, Mr. J. E. Collins, Mr. George Stewart, Mr. C. G. D. Roberts, " Seranus," " Esp^rance," and Mr. P. Thompson. In discussing the paper Mr. Geo. Murray noticed the omission of the names of Dr. Rolph, Mr. Charles Lindsay, and especially the late Mr. W. J. Rattray. THIRD ORDINA.RY MEETING. The Third Ordinary Meeting of Session 1883-84 was held on Saturday, November 17th, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. Henry P. Gisborne was elected a member. The following exchange was announced as received since last meeting : Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, N. S., Vol. V., No. 11, for November, 1883. Mr. W. A. Douglas, B. A., then read a paper on " Land AND Labour," in which a distinction was drawn between property in land and property in other things. We had adopted the system of land tenure that prevailed in Western Europe, and by this system the greater part of society were practically deprived of any right to the surface of the earth. Of two settlers in the North-West, for example, one secures a section which becomes a farm, the other a section which becomes the site of a town ; after twenty years the farm sells for $30 or $50 an acre, the town site for $10,000 or $100,000 an acre. It is more than likely that the owner of the town-lot had done less toil for his reward than the farmer. There was a great distinction between trade in land and trade in other commodities. A man or a number of men take a piece of worthless rock, they subject it to smelting, rolling, etc., and 28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. convert it into a knife or a steam-engine. Here they have added to the utility and have increased wealth. They have furnished a service. Every addition to that utility has been at the cost of muscle and brain. The owner of a piece of land that eventually becomes the site of a town can show no service for his demands. The land of the globe is in fixed ■quantity, while the population demanding land is not fixed, but on this continent is rapidly increasing. In conclusion Mr. Douglas said : " If I have represented with any approach to truth the effects of our present system of land tenure, then the conclusion must be inevitable that we are acting with wicked recklessness in our new territories in alienating with a haste as though to retain possession would be equal to a plague or a deluge. A second conclusion is that our methods of taxation are radically wrong. Instead of taking revenue from the rewards of idleness, we are now doing everything in our power to diminish the reward of labour, and actually impose taxes as penalties to prevent the extension of that system of exchange by which labour seeks to produce its utmost by resorting to the best suited locations." An animated discussion then followed, in which Dr. Mulvany, Mr. William Houston, Mr. George Murray, Prof. Ellis and Mr. Creelman took part. FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Fourth Ordinary Meeting of the Session 1883-84 was held on Saturday, November 24th, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. J. E. Collins was elected a member. The following exchanges were announced : 1. Science, vol. 2, No. 41, for November 16, 1883. 2. Monthly Weather Review for October, 1883. 3. Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 13, No. 2, for November, 1883. 4. List of Members of the Anthropological Institute, corrected to November, 1883. FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 2^ Mr. D. A. O'Sullivan, M A., then read a paper entitled : — OUR FEDERAL UNION, Of which the following are extracts : I think I shall be within the spirit and letter of the constitution of this Institute in discussing the Federal Union of Canada, in the way I propose to myself in this paper. The science of speculative politics, in which the defects in any constitution may be discovered, and remedies proposed for their removal, is probably undesirable ex- cept in purely political societies. At all events it is not the subject here proposed for consideration. * * * I shall draw attention simply to the fundamental law of our Canadian Confederation, and confine myself to our constitutional existence as it is, and not specu- late as to what it might have been, and be better than it is. * *■ * To say that there has been a Federal Union in Canada — using the words in their strict sense — is in my opinion incorrect. The pro- vinces which form that Union in Canada are not and were not sovei'eign states - they were not even possessed of reserved powers in legislation — thev strictly were not relatively independent colonies of the Empire. The States of the Union, before their admission into the Union, were colonial possessions, and they retain to this day the reserved powers of legislation. Even they are not sovereign states, though it took a war to decide that point. They are, however, much nearer to the possession of sovereign power than the provinces of our Federation. * * * It will be seen from an historical glance at the United States what took place in this respect. Their quasi sovereign states, in the year 1777, bound by a compact which was called a confederation, soon learned how useless was such a compact, which had no execu- tive force, and out of which the members might come and go at liberty. Accordingly a convention of some ten years later met and arranged on the terms of an indissolvible union, from which, having once entered, secession was impossible without resorting to means outside of the proposed terms or constitution. Nine States came in and adopted it, and in a short time every State of the old and obso- lete confederation, every old colony of Great Britain was ranged, under one flag and as one nation. * * * 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. In the British North American Colonies confederation has been talked of since the first year of this century. In 1800, 1814, in 1822, in 1825, in Lord Durham's time, in 1859 and in 186i, there have been projects of union. Of the conventions of this latter year in Quebec and Charlottetown, it will be sufficient to say that three Provinces undertook finally to deal with the question of a federation. These were not pretended to be sovereign in any sense and not at all jLn the sense in which the present Dominion may be said to be sovereign. These Provinces took all their rights as colonies in their hands and said in effect to the Mother Country, " "We resign our present charters ; we have agreed to a new state of things ; wipe out ,,the past, and ratify the arrangements we propose to make for the future." The old colonies then passed away, and in their place came one new colony of the Empire, with one parliament to make laws for the peace, order and good government of its people. The charter provides for the government of Canada. The new Canada was then divided up into as many Provinces as there were formerly colonies, with the same or probably the same geographical boundaries. The re-casting of the new Provinces of Canada from the aggregated former colonies of the empire is something not to be lost sight of — their status has been entirely altered — their powers of legislation are limited and the reserved powers taken from them — their ability to secede from the union out of the question — their rights to be consi- dered sovereign states entirely untenable on any legal ground. The concession of legislative powers to the central government was done in a manner totally different from what was done in the United States, and it would be a confusion of language to speak of the pre- sent provinces conceding powers to any government before they possessed any themselves. The interposition of a statute like the Act of Confederation of 1867 between the old colonies and the new provinces may not appear of great moment to persons other than lawyers ; but nevertheless it is as material as any document can be which regulates and governs the parties affected. It is like the partnership deed or joint stock charter of a new firm or company — it is to be looked to in the first instance — it is that which gives us such rights and privileges as we now possess ; it is the law before all ^others, except imperial legislation, that must be regarded and .obeyed. * * * FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 31 With US the Provinces were merged into the new Dominion — gave up their names and their charters, and submitted to be governed by one parliament at Ottawa. They were re-cast, re-created and formed into Provinces of tlie Dominion — no longer separate colonies of the empire, but constituent elements of the new larger colony. The powers given to the Provinces were enumerated powers — many of their ancient rights were gone or become obsolete, and henceforth they were new creatures, supreme in their own local rights, but having no capacity to increase their own stature by one cubit. * * The main feature of every Federation is how far its constituent provinces approach to sovereign States. The autonomy of our Canadian provinces is perhaps the lowest in the scale of power that can be exemplified in history. The list of subjects assigned to the Central Government at Ottawa is fully more than double that assigned to the Provinces, and every unenumerated matter goes to swell the central list. And not only that, but the larger list embraces the important matters. When the autonomy of a Province is spoken ■of, or the home rule of a Province asserted, it must be with large qualifications. The home rule of an obedient wife to her husband is not an inappropriate comparison but like all other comparisons is not to be pursued too far. * * * For good or for evil, so far as our written constitution goes, the people of Canada have agreed to be governed by one Parliament — to have laws made for the peace, order and good government of Canada — but for convenience sake the Provinces have the exclusive I'ight to legislate on certain defined subjects. The legislation is kept under a species of control in the Courts, which is also exercised over Dominion legislation, and the other the veto power of the Governor General of Canada. The Lieutenant-Governor of each province is an official of the Government of Canada, and is sent to preside over the local Legislatures with certain powers over the legislation and with executive control. The subordination of the Provinces to the Dominion is pi-ovided for — at least on paper, and their whole duty is the transacting of the Local government assigned to them. The provinces are independent of each other, but are unable to enter into any engagements other than the constitution provides for them. This is far from being in the position of quasi independent states, and indeed inter-provincial dealings are removed much further than before the union of 1867. * * * 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. So much for the Legislative power. The judicial power is totally different from what obtains in England. In the main — except as ta certain powei-s of the Supreme Court at Washington it is analogous to the judicial power in the United States. A judge in England cannot ignore a statute so long as it is on the books. It binds him — he may evade it or misinterpret it, but before the Constitution he has no power to query it. Such is not the case hei'e or in the United States. With us, as with them, the Constitution is the basis of legislative authority ; it lies at the foundation of all law, and is a rule and commission by which both legislators and judges are to proceed. If the legislatures transgress their constitutional bounds the courts must correct them. But the judiciary has no control over legislature, and no power whatever to question its purpose or animus so long as such legislation is kept within its defined limits. The judiciary is, there- fore, not a subordinate but a co-ordinate branch of the government of this country. It may keep the executive even within its authority by refusing to give the sanction of law to whatever it may do beyond it, and by holding the agents and instruments of its iinlawful action to strict accountability. A judge in a Division Court, as well as a judge in the Supreme Court, may be bound to ignore a statute, if not passed by the proper Legislature or Parliament. Every act of any of our legislatures repugnant to the Constitution is absolutely void, and cannot become law of the land. There is a presumption in favour of its validity, however, until the contrary is established. The execvitive power in Canada is peculiar and merits a remark. Whilst the legislative powers of the Provinces and the Dominion are sharply defined, and whilst the judicial or administrative powers are little capable of creating a difference of opinion, it is impossible to say that the Act of 1867 is " not conflicting," or at least embarrassing in respect of the executive. In the British Constitution the sovereign is the apex of authority ; the King or Queen theoretically summons the Parliament, which makes or is responsible for all the laws in the realm — appoints the jxidges who administer these laws, and the execu- tive authority is vested in her. The same Queen in Canada is the same power, and summons the Parliament at Ottawa, appoints the judges as a general rule, with one trifling exception, and the executive government and authority of and over Canada is vested in her. This, FOURTH ORDINARY MEETING. 33 of course, applies only to the Federal Government, but from other expressions and from one express section in the same Act, several of the Provinces claim that Her Majesty is a necessary element in their Provincial Legislatures ; that she is the executive in the Provincial Legislatures. These Provinces are Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba and British Columbia, and they use the same forms mutatis mutandis of enacting laws as are used at Ottawa or at Westminister. * * * It is conceded that the Queen has no immediate power over Pro- vincial Legislation, as the veto on it must come from Ottawa and not from England. When, therefore, Her Majesty passes an Act in the Provinces referred to. Her Majesty's representative at Ottawa may disallow it — a proceeding likely to endanger the well-known doctrine of principal and agent, but from which happily no serioiis results have yet happened. * * * I have now called attention to the three great divisions of govern- ment — the executive, the judicial and the legislative. In the latter two of these we resemble the Constitution of the United States — in the former and as to the Dominion Pai-liament generally, we offer an example of a reduced copy of the British Constitution. We labour under the disadvantages of c^very people living under a written con- stitution — defined, limited and inflexible — but we have the advan- tages which a certain amount of definiteness always affords. We have not been an easy people to govern in the past, and it is likely that we will be no better in the future. The inhabitants of the Dominion scattered from ocean to ocean — men of different counti'ies and languages — different religions and races — are difficult to govern consecutively in the same way for any great length of time. Six changes we have had since Quebec fell, and o\iT ablest men will now tell you that the next few years are going to decide largely the fate of the Dominion. It may be impossible to keep in union elements that are ill-assorted or antagonistic, but the continued existence of Canada as a Feder- ation will be due to the united good sense of the whole people rather than to the absence of defects of any constitution binding them together." In the discussion which followed Mr. George Murray, Mr. William Houston, Mr. Alexander Marling, and Mr. William Anderson took part. 3 34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. FIFTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Fifth Ordinary Meeting of Session 1883-84 was held on Saturday, December ist, 1883, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following exchanges were announced : 1. Proceedings of the Royal Colonia,! Institute, Vol 14, 1882-83. 2. Joiirnal of the Liunean .Society of London. Botany, Vol. 19, No. 122. Vol. 20, Nos. 123 to 129. Zooloj^y, Vol. 16. Nos. 95 and 96. Vol. 17, Nos. 97, 98, 99, 100. Proceedings of the Linnean Society from November, 1880, to June, 1882. Lists of the Linnean Society for October, ISSl, and October, 1882. 3. Science, Vol. 2, No. 42, for November 23, 1883. 4. Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part 1, Polypetalte, by John Macoun, M. A. 5. Minutes and Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 57, Session 1878-79. 6. Science Record, Vol. 2, No. 1, Nov. 15, 1883. 7. M6moires et Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Societe des Ingenieura Ci\'ils, September, 1883. 8. Journal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. 17, No. 3. 9. Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1881. 10. Schriften der Physikalisch — okonomischen Gesellschaft, zu Konigsberg, for 1882, first and second parts. Mr. J. Herbert Mason then read a paper on " Transfer of Land." The object of the paper was to call attention to the cumbrous and expensive character of the present method of land transfer, and tourge the adoption of the so-called "Torrens System." The following members took part in the extended discussion which followed : Mr. Geo. E. Shaw, Mr. J. C. Hamilton, Mr. Geo. Murray, Mr. W. A. Douglas, Mr. D. Blain^ Mr. J. A. Patterson, Mr. Jas. Bain, jun., and Mr. Oliver How- land. THE SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Session. 1883-84 was held on Saturday, December 8th, 1883. The First Vice- President, Mr. George Murray in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. M. McLaughlin was elected a member. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 36 The following exchanges were announced : 1. The American Journal of Science, Vol. 26, No. 156 for December, 1883. 2. Journal of the Franklin Institute for December, 1883. 3. The Canada Practitioner, December, 1883. 4. On the Osteology and Development of Syngnathus Peckianus, (Storer) by J. Playfair McMurrich. 5. Journal of the Royal Dublin Society, Vol. 2, 1858-'59. 6. Sitzangsberichte uul Abhandlungen der Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesell schaft " Isis " in Dresden, Januar bis Juni. 7. Science Vol. 2, (No. 43, November 30, 1883.) 8. Constitution and By-Laws of the Chicago Historical Society, 1882-83. 9. Second Annual Report of the United States GeologicaljSurvey for 1880-'81. 10. Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of New Territories ; a Report of the Progress in the Exploration of Wyoming and Idaho for 1878 by F. C. Hayden ; U. S. Geologist, Parts 1 and 2. 11. Maps and Panoramas to the above. 12. United States Geological Survey, Monograph 2 ; Territory History of the Grand Canon District by Clarence 0, Dutton. 13. Atlas to accompany the same. 14. Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 1. 15. Magazine of American History of December, 1883. 16. The Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, Vol. 1, (Series 2), Parts 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 for Januai-y, February, August and November, 1882. 17. Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, Vol. 3, (N. S.), August, 1882, Part 5. 18. Verhandelingen der K. Akademie Van Wetenschappen, Twee en Twintigste Deel. 19. Verslagen en Mededeelingen der K. Akademie Van Wetenschappen, Af- deeling Natuurkunde, Tweede Reeks, 17th Deel, Parts 1, 2, 3. 20. Jaarboek Van de K. Akademie Van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 1881. 21. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, (Paleeontologia Indica), Series 10, Vol. 2, Part 5. 22. Jahrbuch der K. K. Geologischen Reichsanstalt, 1883, Band 33, Numbers 1, 2, 3, January to September, 1883. 23. Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs, Forhand- ling og dets Medlemmers Arbejder i Aaret, 1882, No. 3, 1882, and No. 1, 1883, Kjobenhavn. 24. Memoir^s de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Nouvelle Serie, 1882-83, 1884 Copenhague. 25. 22 und 23 Berichte uber die Thatigkeit des Offenbacher Vereins fiir Natur- kunde vom 29 April, 1880, bis 4 Mai, 1882, Offenbach a. M., 1883. 26. Tillaeg til Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historic, 1881,, Kjobenhavn, 1882. 27. Papers, Proceedings, and Report of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1881.. 28. Verhandlungen der K. K. Zoologisch-Botanischen GeseUschaft in Wien, 32 : Band, 1882. 29. Offenes Schreiben auf Herrn Baron Osten Sacken's "Critical Review'" Meiner Arbeit iiber die Notacanthen, Von Prof. "Dr. Friedrich Brauer;, 36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 30. Sitzungsbericlite der K. bohmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Prag, 1881. 31. Jahresbericht der K. bohmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Prag, 17 Juni, 1881, do. 10 Juui, 1882. 32. Anales del Museo Nacioual de M(5xico, Tomo 3, Entrega 3, M(5xico, 1883. 33. Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Vol. 16, Part 2, 1881-82. 34. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. 4, Parts 2, 3, 4, 5, 1881-82. 35. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. 13, Part 2, 1882. 36. Abhandlungen herausgegeben von naturwissenschaftlichen Vereiu zu Bremen, 8 Band, 1 Heft, Bremen, 1883. 37. Mittheilungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 1882, 25 Band. 38. Sitzungsbericlite der Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, " Isis" in Dresden. Jahrgang, 1868, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 3 Nos. 1869, ' 1—12, 4 Nos. 1870, ' 4—12, 3 " 1871, ' 1—12, 4 " 1872, ' 1—12, 4 " 1873, ' 1—12, 2 " 1874, ' 1—12, 3 " 1875, ' 1—12, 2 " 1876, ' 1—12, 2 " 1877, ' 1—12, 3 " 1878, ' 1—12, 2 " Mr. J. M. Clark, B. A., then read a paper entitled : — SOME THOUGHTS ON THERMOTICS. In the following paper it is proposed to consider in a few of their many aspects, the nature of heat, the laws of its propagation, its causes and its eflPects, noticing its correlation to the other forms of enei'gy, and some more or less important ap^jlications of what we shall give some reasons for considering the true theory of heat to some of the problems of Chemistry, Geology and Meteorology. Heat being that in material bodies, which causes in us the sensation by virtue of which we call bodies hot or cold, hotter or colder, it is important at the outset to understand what that something in the physical world is. Prof. Tait, the eminent Natural Philosopher, in his valuable historical sketch of the Theories of Heat, says, that in the physical world, besides the inevitable Time and Space, there are but four elementary ideas, namely : — Matter, Force, Position and Motion. This statement seems open to very serious objection. Though time may from one point of view be regarded as one of the SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 37 conceptual elements of motion, and as such has been justly denomi- nated the " great independent variable," yet to the physicist it cannot be regarded as by any means an elementary idea. This will be apparent if we remember the conventional measure of time univers- ally employed. That measure shows that time is recognised, not as a primordial idea, but as a very complex conception involving motion, position and space. Further, it seems utterly inconsistent with what is now known of the nature of force, to regard it as an elementary idea. If matter be really inert, the only rational use of the word force is to denote certain mechanical facts of motion. We may therefore for our present purposes regard space, matter, position and motion as the only elementary ideas in the physical world. Heat consequently must be referred to these ideas or to combina- tions of them. The experiments of Davy and Rumford demonstrated that heat cannot be matter, since they were able to extract an unlimited amount of heat from a limited quantity of matter, thus proving that the production of heat did not involve the consumption of matter. These experiments, together with an innumerable number of others of similar nature, show that the essential idea of heat lies in motion. But since to have motion matter must move, it is more correct to define Heat as a form of Energy than of Motion. From the fact that there is a mechanical equivalent of heat, it follows that the quantity of heat is proportional not to the quantity of motion, but to the quantity of energy. Thiis Tyndall's brilliant work " Heat as a Mode of Motion," would have been more correctly and appropriately entitled, "Heat as a Form of Energy." Besides being more correct, this designation would have the important advantage of suggesting the remarkable connection of heat with light, magnetism, electricity, &c., by virtue of the Conservation of Energy, a principle, the discovery of which is perhaps the grandest reward of the scientific research of modern times. Having then established that heat is a form of energy, it becomes necessary to consider the question — Ai'e there two essentially diflferent kinds of energy, kinetic and potential 1 Tf potential energy be defined (as it generally is) to be the energy of position, its existence is utterly inconsistent with the proposition that matter is inert, a pro- position the truth of which lies at the foundation of Modern Physics. 38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Newton in one of his celebrated letters to Bentley, has justly said, " That one body may act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else by and through which their action may be conveyed from one to another, is so great an absurdity, that no man, who has in philosophical matters, a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it." From this it inevitably follows, that no body, or system of bodies can possess energy merely by virtue of its position, in other words by virtue of the distances of its parts from all other bodies. In this sense, therefore, potential energy involves a contradiction in terms. But if we regard potential energy as a convenient name for those kinds of energy whose nature is not yet understood, the term is con- venient and admissible, though liable to create considerable confusion. There are not therefore two distinct kinds of energy — enei-gy of motion, and energy of position. The distinction can, in the natux'e of things, have no possible fundamental dilference for its basis. But energy may be conveniently divided into two classes, namely, energy whose nature we in some measure understand — called kinetic — and energy — known on the other hand as potential — of whose nature we know comparatively little, but which we regard as dependent on position, not that this dependence is an ultimate physical fact, but because it is a secondary or conventional mark, which, in the absence of more definite knowledge, it is convenient to adopt. Heat then, being beyond doubt, a form of energy, it is important to determine in what forms of matter the heat energy resides, whether for instance, in heated bodies, the vibrations, by virtue of which the bodies are said to be hot are vibrations of the atoms or of the molecules. Notwithstanding the high authority of Tyndall to the contraiy, there is good reason to snjjpose that heat properly so called, consists exclusively in molecular motion. To make out the probability of this apparently bold assertion, it is necessary to investigate the real nature of what is most erroneously called radiant heat, but which possesses no more of the characteristic qualities of heat than the motion of a hammer about to strike an anvil. Tyndall himself has conclusively proved, not only that radiant heat is not matter as is confusingly suggested by the origin of the phrase, but what is more to the point, that it is nothing more or nothing less than a wave motion of the luminiferous ether, which prevades not only all interstellar, but also intermolecular and interatomic space. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 39 By the way, we may notice that the term luminiferous ether which is derived from its connection with the theory of light, and which •does not at all suggest the varied functions which this mysterious medium is now supposed to fulfil is fast losing its appropriateness. In view of the recent advances in Molecular Science, energipherous would seem a much fitter term. Though this name is suggested by the nature of I'adiant heat the 'Coining of a new word is further justified by the views as to the nature of electricity, magnetism, &c., advanced by Maxwell, and now held by the leading investigators in that important field of knowledge. Further, analysing light by the spectroscope, and remembering that on the undulatory theory of light, which is one of the most completely verified hypotheses of modern science, refrangibility is pro- portional to the wave-length, we can be certain that in any given section of the spectral band, whether in the doubtfully so-called thermal, luminous or actinic portions, we have vibrations of a deter- minate wave-length. Now it is found by means of the thermopile that the luminous portion of the spectral hand has a heating effect, pi'oving that luminous rays are also thermal rays, or that the identical rays, which falling on the optic nerve would excite the sensation of light, when .allowed to strike tlie face of the thermopile produce the effects ■of heat. This important identity is rendered probable by the fact that cer- tain substances absorb light, the only explanation of the disappear- ance being that the substances are more or less heated. Leslie lias ■shown experimentally that this heating does in fact take place. Combining this conclusion with the property known as the trans- mutation of mys, a property discovered by Stokes, who succeeded in •fio diminishing the wave-lengtlis of the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum (by the interposition of thin plates of certain substances) AS to render them visible, it follows that the fact of heat-producing •chemical decomposition which can only be effected by an acceleration in the motions of the constituent atoms of the molecules, or in other words by interatomic forces, does not at all prove that heat consists in atomic as distinguished from molecular vibrations. Even should Lockyer's hypothesis that in the enormously heated atmosphere of the sun the supposed elementary bodies are dis- 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, sociated, and their existence, as such, rendered impossible be proved^ the same reasoning goes to show that the necessity of supposing the* Beat of the heat vibrations to lie in the elementary constituents of the molecules would not follow. Tyndall in one of his contributions to Molecular Physics argues that since the power of absorption of a vapor depends on that of the liquid from which it has been obtained, or since the state of aggre- gation does not alter the relative power of absorption of bodies, the seat of absorption must lie in the atoms — not in the molecules — the relative positions of the molecules being altered, and consequently the conditions of molecular motion. To this it may be replied that the change in the intermolecular relations involved in a change in the state of aggregation of a body does not necessitate any alter- ation in the periods of the molecular vibrations but may merely lengthen or shorten their amplitudes. On the other hand were the atoms the seat of the heat vibrations, such undoubted facts as that water has such profoundly diffei'ent physical properties from both hydrogen and oxygen, that ozone has many times the absorbing power of oxygen, and that ammonia has about 5000 times the absorbing power of either of its constituents, hydrogen or nitrogen, would be utterly incapable of explanation. On the whole these considerations, combined with the general law that heat for the most part produces physical and not chemical effects, though molecular motion may undoubtedly be transformed. into atomic motion subject to the law of the conservation of energy, seem to point irresistibly to the conclusion that heat is not only a form of energy but more particularly that it consists in molecular motions. The relation of heat to light is shown clearly by the analysis of light by means of a prism, and lies in the fact that all the undulations of the energipherous medium, if transformed into the molecular motion of bodies, or if allowed to excite the tactile nerves manifest themselves in the form of heat, while only a limited portion when allowed to strike the eye excites the optic nerve and produces, the sensation of sight. In a manner which we now propose briefly to describe similar, more or less intimate, connexions have been^ estal)lished between heat and the other forces of nature, so that heat,. li<4it, electricity, magnetism, sound, chemical affinity, potential and mechanical energy are now generally regarded as but different forms of an unchangeable amount of indestructible energy. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 4l There can be now no doubt that the theoi'etical foundation for the modern doctrine of the conservation of energy, of which the equiva- lence of heat and work is a particular case, was distinctly and substantially laid by the genius of Newton in his wonderful scholium to his Third Law of Motion. In this scholium and in the commentary on it Newton not only enunciates the law of conservation of energy, so far as the state of experimental science in his day would permit, but also clearly antici- pated the so-called modern principle of Vis Viva and D'Alemhert's principle. No further advance of any moment seems to have been made till about 100 years later Davy and Kumford proved experi- mental Iv the immateriality of heat. To Rumford is mainly due the credit of having rescued the question of the nature of heat from the domain of metaphysics, and of having devised several ingenious experiments, by means of which he arrived at a remarkably approxi- mate value of the mechanical equivalent of heat. The next im- portant names in connection with the history of the theory of heat ax'e those of Fourier and Carnot. The calculations and conclusions of these profound mathematicians were expressed, it is true, in terms which to a certain extent involved the now exploded corpuscular theories of light and heat, but their reasoning and results were to such an extent inde])endent of any particular theory that the elements involving the truth of these untenable hypotheses are capable of being almost entirely eliminated, leaving results which have proved of the greatest use in the development of the true theory of energy. Perhaps the most important of the many valuable contributions of Clausius to the theory of heat was his adaptation of the theorem of Carnot, so as to make it consistent with the prin- ciple of the equivalence of heat and work. To Joule, the great English physicist, is undoubtedly due, as has- been conclusively shown by Prof. Tait, the ci'edit of having placed the grand law of the conservation of energy, of which the first main principle of the mechanical theory of heat is but a particular case, on a sui-e experimental foundation. By means of some of the most ingenious and i-efined experiments of modern times. Joule deter- mined that 772 foot-pounds of work, if converted into heat, would raise I pound of water 1° F., or that to produce a quantity of heat sufficient to raise 1 kilogramme of water through 1° C. work must be consumed to the extent of 424 kilogrammeti-es, and thus placed 42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the truth of the dynamical theory of heat beyond all manner of doubt. His results have been extended by Helmholtz, Mayer, Clausius, and Thomson, till the law of conservation has been shown, to govern all natural forces. Thomson demonstrated that Faraday's discovery of the rotation of the plane of polarization of a polarized ray of light, produced by media under the influence of a powerful magnet, involved the dependence of magnetism on motion. The extension of the principles of the conservation and trans- formation of energy to physiological phenomena has been largely due to Helmholz and Carpenter. There can be no doubt that Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light is destined to play no unimportant part in the development of the true theory of energy. From data supplied by Weber Maxwell, found that electi-o-magnetic disturbances were propagated with the same velocity as light. The explanation of this he held to be that electricity like light was due to the undulatory vibrations of the medium, which is beyond question necessary for the propagation of light. Should this hypothesis be found to be a valid one, a very clear insight will be obtained into the real connexion between electricity, light, and radiant heat. From what has pi-eceded, it will be seen that the mysterious, all-pervading ether plays an increasingly important pai't iix the prevailing physical theories. To such an extent is this the case that Tyndall has justly remarked that its relations to the matter of the universe must mainly occupy the investigations of future scientists. In order to form a more detiinite idea of the properties of this highly attenuated substance, which is yet so elastic and incompressible, that Stallo has characterised it as an adamantine solid, it is now proposed to attempt a calculation of its probable density. To accomplish this object, it is necessary to know the amount of radiant energy emitted by the sun. This determined by careful observations with the pyrheliometer, and expressed by means of Joule's mechanical equiva- lent of heat, amounts to 5,500,000 foot-pounds per second from every square foot of the sun's surface. Now, the velocity of light is 186,000 miles per second. Therefore the radiant energy sent forth by the sun during any given second of time will at the end of that second be contained between two spheres, the smaller 133,000 miles, or the semi-diameter of the sun for radius. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 43 .^nd the larger 619,000, or 433,000 4- 186,000 miles. The volume of this space is — — (5280)3 (10)« I (619)3 - (433)3 I cub. ft. Also, the surface of the sun is 4 ;: (433)^ (10)« (5280)^ sq. ft. Therefore 1 cubic foot of ether is agitated by — 4 71(433)2(10)^(5280)2 x 5500000 t^ (5280)3 (10)9 1 (619)3 _ (433)3 j. ^nnnnn foot-pounds of energy. 5280 X 279000 Let m repi'esent the mass of each ether-particle, or the average mass if the ether-particles are not uniform, and n the number of such particles in a cubic foot, so that nni = M. will be the number of pounds of ether in a cubic foot. Using the ordinary equation of the harmonic curve — . .2rrx , y = asm ( — — + «) it will be seen by differentiating twice that the maximum velocity of 2 TT C£ any pai'ticle owing to any single wave is — - — V, where a is the amplitude, A the wave length and V the velocity of propagation. Hence the energy of a particle whose mass is ??^, under such circumstances is — m 2 -- a'' ^^,, . ^ — — -, — V- loot-pounds. ff A- Therefore the energy of a cubic foot of ether is — ,m 2n'a'Y'' M 2n'a-Y' r : 9 ^' 9 ^' Equating these two expressions for the same quantity of enei'gy we get as the mass of a cubic of ether gA2 5500000 j^g ^ = 2-V (186000)2 (279000) (5,280,3 It will be seen that the only assumption involved in this calcula- tion is thac the average velocity of the ether particles may be taken to be equal to the maximum velocity in consequence of a single wave motion. 44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, In order to ari-ive at a numerical result we have to find the value of —, and of these two quantities only one A has been experi- mentally determined. However, remembering that on the undulatory theory of light a diminishes with the distance from the centre of radiation we are certainly safe in supposing that even in the region of space we are considering a cannot possibly be greater than 200A. It is scarcely possible that the velocity of the ether-particles can exceed 233,626,000 miles per 1", the stupendous rate necessitated by this supposition. Substituting for — -^r— - and multiplying the result by '5280)^ we conclude that the mass of a cubic mile of ether / 1 ^'^ IS not less than ^ V^jtt/ of a pound. Now a cvibic mile of air (at 0° 760mm) contains (10)^" lbs. Therefore air is not more than 4(10)^ times denser than the ether. Using this value for the density, a sphere whose radius is the same as that of Neptune's orbit, or -76,000,000 would contain 2(10)^^ lbs. of ether or a sphere whose radius is 95,000,000 miles, the distance of the earth from the sun, would contain 4,400,000 tons. If we suppose, as reasoning from acoustical analogies there is con- siderable reason for doincr that a instead of being 200 times gi'eater than A is 5 times less, a cubic mile of ether would contain ^f — y lbs., or a sphere of the same dimensions as the eai-th would contain about 6,500 lbs. After having made the above calculations, and in the course of a A vain search for further data as to the value of — we found that some a years ago Sir W. Thomson had attempted a similar undertaking, and by means of a somewhat different method of investigation, had arrived at the conclusion that the probable density of the ether was 25 times less than that given above. Considering the uncertainty of the assumption as to the ratio between the amplitude and wave-length of the ethereal vibrations, the coincidence is satisfactorily close. Although, as has been pointed out, the quantity of energy in the SIXTH ORDINAKY MEETING. 45 universe is invariable and can neither be increased or diminished, yet by virtue of laws of which we have a particular case in Clausius' ^' Second Main Principle of the Mechanical Theory of Heat," the amount of what may be termed available energy is being constantly exhausted. The truth of this, together with many very important conse- quences which follow from it, was first pointed out by Sir W. Thomson in a remarkably able paper on a " Universal Tendency in Natui'e to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy." It is simply another method of saying that no known natural processes are per- fectly reversible. A few moments reflection will suffice to show that the main sources of energy available for man are (1) Food; (2) Fuel; (3) Water Power ; (4) Wind. Of these food and fuel are of the same nature, food being utilized by means of animal machines, such as men, horses, itoc, while fuel is converted into mechanical motion by means of engines of various kinds. The mechanical energy which is thus produced by means of food and fuel is evidently, for the most part, derived from the heat and light radiated from the sun. Water power and ^vind even more obviously obtain their energy from the same source. Solar radiation is therefore the grand source whence nearly all the energy available for man is derived. Various theories have been advanced to account for the enoi-mous amount of energy in the form of heat and light annually sent forth by the sun, and of which the earth intercepts a very small portion. It was, for instance, supposed by some that the sun's heat was pro- duced by the combustion of its materials. A very few facts will show that this hypothesis is utterly untenable. The mass of the sun, estimated from the most reliable determinations of the solar parallax, has been found to be about 4(10)^" lbs. The consumption of a pound of coal is known to produce an amount of heat equiva- lent to 9,200,000 foot-pounds. Combining these, we see that if the materials of th(i sun were supposed to be capable of producing by their combustion as much heat as equal masses of coal, an assumption eminently favorable to the hypothesis in question, the total mass of the sun would be con- sumed in producing a quantity of heat whose mechanical equivalent is 368(10)^'' foot-pounds. In estimating the probable density of the ether, it was found that the quantity of energy radiated from the 46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. sun was 4 7r(433)2 (10^(5280)2 5,500,000 foot-pounds per second, or (10)^ foot-pounds per annum. It therefore follows that if the theoiy of the origin of solar heat under examination were the true one, the energy of the sun would be completely exhausted in 3,680 years, while we know that the quantity of heat i-adiated from the sun has been practically as great as at present for millions of years. The theory of combustion or chemical combination, therefore, falls to the ground, and it is now generally supposed that the perennial fountain whence flow the vast energies of the solar system, is the potential energy of gravitation which is converted into kinetic energy by it8^ mass moving towards the centre of inertia of the solar system, and thence into heat by a mechanism indicated by the physical constitu- tion of the fiery ruler of the day. The following investigation will show that this now generally accepted hypothesis predicates a cause known to be a vera causa amply capable of producing the results it is supposed to explain, and that therefore it is not inconsistent with the axiom that the cause- must be equal to the effect. Let p represent the density at distance r from the centi-e of a spherical mass, supposed equally dense at equal distances from the centre. The elemental mass, therefore, between the spherical surfaces whose radii are r and r -f dr,is p 4^Tzr dr.^ Taking proper units of force, &c, and remembering the theorem that the atti'action of a spherical shell on an internal particle vanishes, it follows that the force acting on this elemental mass is measured by the quantity — 4 71 /> r dr fa ^ tt pr^ dr. r- assuming of course the Newtonian law of gravdtation. The work done by this elemental mass moving through an infinitesimal dc, will consequently be — 4:7: pr dr f 14:~ p r dr dc. Integrating with respect to dr we get as the total work done' — / < 4:7Tp dr.y'o 4-K pr^ dr. \ dr. a formula which will be found to be of considerable use in solving certain important classes of problems. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 47 Supposing ft to be constantly uniform if the radius of the sphero be originally a and become a - da, dc will evidently be - da, and the total amount of work done on account of the contraction, will con. sequentlv be - M" — , where M = jj a^, the mass of the sphere. D a- 3 Integrating this expression between the limits a and b we get as the amount of work done by a spherical mass M of radius a (supposed uniform) contracting to a uniform sphere of radius b, - M^ ( — - 1. 5 \b a} Applying these forniulaj to the case of the sun whose radius is 433,200 miles and whose mass is 4 (10)^° lbs., the amount of work done, or in other words, tiie quantity of heat generated, by a con- traction of 1 foot in the radius of the sun (svipposed uniform) will be found to be represented by — 3 16(10«" 5 (433200)2 (5280)2 The unit of force used here obviously is the attraction of unit mass on unit mass at unit distance ; so that the attraction of the earth on unit mass at its surface would be represented by — 33 ' ' (400)2 (5280)^ 4 multiplied by the mass of the earth = ^ ' lOf" of these units. oo Now this force will cause 1 lb. to move through- = 16*1 ft. per second. Therefore a contraction of 1 foot in the sun's radius will generate a quantity of heat equivalent to — 3 16 (I0)«» X 33 X (4000)2 x (5280)^ x 16-1 5 (433200)'-' X 4 x (lO)^^ = (10)^^ foot-pounds. If account were taken of the fact that the sun must become denser as its centre is approached, this quantity would be considerably larger. Accordingly a yearly contraction of 10 feet in the sun's radius would be amply suflficient to sustain its heat at the present rate of radiation. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. A decrease in the diameter of the sun of less than 20 miles would keep up the sup])ly for over 5000 years. The most refined instru- ments would not be sufficiently precise to detect so small a variation. If on the same hypothesis, the sun's radius were to become one- half what it now is, or the density of the sun eight times its present value, which would make its density about the same as that of lead, instead of — 3 Ti«^2 1 _ M2 6 (433200,2(5280)2 for a contraction of 1 foot, we should have -3 wf 1 ^ • 5 \ 1(433200) (5280) (433200)5280 i.e., about 433200 x 5280 times as much heat would be generated. This would be sufficient to sustain the present rate of radiation for 22,000,000 years. Similarly if the mass of the sun were equally diffused throughout a sphere having a radius of 276,000,000 miles, which is the distance of Neptune from the sun, and were to contract till it became uniformly as dense as lead, heat enough would be pi'o- duced to meet the present demand for 44,000,000 years. Further, if the solar mass had the same specific heat as water, and were raised to a temperature of 28,000°, it would contain a store of heat 2,000,000 times as great as the present yeai'ly expenditure. These figures, curious and instructive in themselves, derive con- siderable importance from their bearing on the problems of geological time, when taken in connection with the vast seons considered neces- sary by most geologists for the formation of the different strata of rocks, and with the still vaster ages claimed by biologists for the evohition of the existing and extinct forms of animal life. The palseontological evidence for the high development and wide dispei'sal of organisms, at least in later paljeozoic times, is complete ; and to the existence of a flora and a f;iuna, such as that indicated even in the Cambrian formations, a mild climate is absolutely essential. Now though climate is pi'ofoundly affected by the pres- ence of mountains and large bodies of water, and even more by winds and ocean currents, and by the quantities of the variable elements in the atmosphere, yet to maintain a mild climate the heat- giving power of the sun must have been materially as great as at present. SIXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 49 The heat generated by the sun in assuming its present density and conformation can not be supposed to be greater than that produced by contraction from the limits of the solar system to a homogeneous sphere of one-half its present radius. This would make 44,000,000 years, the limiting age which can be assigned to the Cambrian formations. We shall conclude by applying the principle that the absorptive power of a vapour is determined by that of the liquid from which it is derived, to explain the empirical law (enunciated by Mr. McQee) that any increase in annual or diurnal range is accompanied by a diminution of mean temperature. The aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, being derived from water, which has a compai-atively high absorptive power, must also possess considerable })ower of absorption, and Tyndall has conclusively shown experimentally that such is the case. Also, the power of radiation is strictly propor- tional to the power of absorption, as is known both from theory and experiment, so that the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere is both a good absorbent and radiant. Now, when the temperature is raised, not only will the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere be heated, but a larger amount of it will be formed, and as gases expand when heated, this vapour will tend to rise to the higher regions of the atmosphere, and radiate its heat into space. On the other hand, in a comparatively cold season the relatively cooled vapour tends to descend, the heated vapour from the surface of the earth ascends, and imparts its heat to cold space, x4.1so the amount of heat received from the sun may for our present purpose be considered as invariable from year to year, so that the two actions above mentioned show that the radiant absorbent and expansive powers of aqueous vapour combine to lessen the rela- tive amount of heat retained by the earth, during both exceptionally high and exceptionally low temperatures, i. e., during a period of large thermom(;tric range, and consequently to diminish the mean temperature. There may be and probably are other con-causes of this effect, but the one we have assigned is certainly a real and efficient factor in producing the apparently anomalous result in question. In the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Clark's paper, Mr. Geo. E. Shaw, Mr. J. G. Mowat, Dr. Jos. Workman, and Mr. J. M. Buchan took part. 4 50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Seventh Ordinary Meeting of 1883-84 was held on Saturday, December 15th, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following gentlemen were admitted members : Mr. R. W. Phipps, Mr. William Leslie Beale, Mr. Arthur J. Graham, John J. Cassidy, M. D. List of donations and exchanges received since last meeting : — 1. Journal of the Franklin Institute for October, 1883. 2. Tillaeg til Aarboger for Norske. Oldkyndighed og Historiae, Aargang, 1879. 3. " " " 1880. Kjobenhavn, 1880-81. 4. M^moires de la Soci6te des Antiquaires du Nord, Nouvelle S^rie, 1881. 5. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Vol'. 11, Nos. 3 and 4. 6. Science, Vol. 2, No. 44, December 7th, 1883. 7. Appleton's Literary Bulletin, December, 1883. 8. Transactions of the Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society, Nos. 5 and 6. Nos. 1 and 2, 1883-4. 9. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Nos. 1 to 8, January to- September, 1883. 10. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 52, Part 2, No. 1, 1883. 11. Scientific Proceedings of the Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Vol. 2, No. 3,. September, 1883. 12. Waifs in Verse, by G. W. Wicksteed, Q. C. , Law Clerk House of Com- mons of Canada, presented by the author. 13. Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Vol 17, Part 10, Sessions 1883-84. Mr. T. B. Browning, M. A., then read a paper entitled, " England's Oldest Colony." Mr. Browning opened his paper by commenting upon the indiffer- ence with which the Provinces of British North Amtjrica treat each other, and proceeded to discuss the rights which the French have in that part of Newfoundland called the French Shore under the treaties of Utrecht, Paris, and subsequent arrangements. He also alluded to the Banks fishery, and stated that the French employ about 700 ships in this and the shore fishery, about 28,000 seamen, and make SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 51 an annual catch of a million quintals of codfish. The rights of the French seemed to him to be greatly detrimental to the interests of Newfoundland, made the richest part of the island practically a sealed book, and were a continual source of trouble to both England and France. He further referred to the rights which the Americana exercise under the Treaty of Washington, and showed that stringent regulations were become needful, in the interest of all, to prevent wanton destruction and depletion of the Newfoundland fisheries, upon which so great a part of the world depended for a great part of their food supply. He next described the geographical position and geological for- mation of the island, its copper, coal, iron deposits, and made particular reference to currents along shore, which he stated to be the cause of the many shipwrecks which happen near Cape Race and. St. Shotts. Having called attention to the city and harbour of St. . Johns, the capital of the island and its principal attractions, he pro- ceeded to discuss the foreign trade of Newfoundland, which, he said, is being drawn to the chief town moi-e and more year by year, and which he placed at $16,000,000 annually. The land question next came under review in two branches ; first, as regards the waterside premises of St. Johns which are built on leased lands, the leases of which expire in a year or two, and concerning which legislative action is contemplated in the coming session. Newfoundland has developed with her landlords a crisis similar to that with which Ontario had to deal in her clergy reserves, Quebec in her seignorial tenures, Prince Edward's Island in her proprietory rights. Touching upon the larger question of land tenure Mr. Browning referred to the decrees of the Star Chamber 1630, to statute 10 a,nd 11 Wra. III., and 1.5 Geo. III., ch. 31, as establishing communism in land. No man could own any acre of the soil, no reserves were given to the Protestant or any other church, and no power was granted to the governors to pass a title to land. This communism continued until 1820, and made the country a fishing preserve for the west country merchants. It enriched England and developed her maritime power, but impoverished the soil of Newfoundland. A geographical survey of the country into counties, townships, sections and lots is still to be made, and is needed for agricultural and lumbering purposes. 52 PROCKEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. He then referred to certain manners and customs of the people, particularly to the gambols of Christmas-tide, which, long since dead in England, flourished in Newfoundland until about twenty years ago. He gave statistics showing the progress of total abstinence, and described the chief agencies in the movement as well as the lineage and religion of the inhabitants of the island. It seems that the first colony permanently settled in Newfoundland was that of John Gruy, who acted as manager for a company in which Lord Bacon was a shareholder. Colonies were also formed by Lord Balti- more in 1623, and several by the French and Portuguese. The main industries were described as the summer and spi'ing fish- eries ; the first of cod, salmon and herring, the second of seals. The fish caught was valued at from ten to twelve million dollars, the number of seals reckoned at a yearly average of 600,000. The condition of the fishermen, which had been almost hopeless from the crushing weight upon them of the supply system, was improving. Education was doing something for them, facilities of communication more. Their great need was a home market, at least a market nearer than Brazil, Spain or Italy. Formerly Newfoundland's surplus wealth was drawn to the West of England, the shores of the Mersey and Clyde, but is now adorning her own capital and spreading a spirit of enterprise among her people. They look to Canada and the West rather than to Britain and the East. The question of Con- federation, he said, is with Newfoundland one of terms, and may be expected to be answered in the affirmative in the near future. In the discussion which followed Mr. J. M. Buchan, Mr. Fred. Phillips, Mr. James Bain, jun., Mr. Geo. E. Shaw, Mr. John Notman, and Mr. B. B. Hughes took part. EIGHTH ORDINARY MEETING. 63 EIGHTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Eighth Ordinary Meeting of the Session i883-'84 was held on Saturday, December 22nd, 1883, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following gentlemen were elected members of the Institute : — H. H. Langton, B.A., Charles Miles, C. E., S. George Curry, Architect. The following exchanges were announced : 1. Annual Report of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvarfl College for 1882-'83. 2. Science, Vol. 2, No. 45, December 14, 1883. 3. Monthly Weather Review for November, 1883. 4. Report of the Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey for the year ending June, 1881. Mr. Alan Macdougall, C.E, F. R.S. E., read a paper en- titled :— CANADIAN CATTLE TRADE AND ABATTOIRS. The dependence of Britain on foreign or extraneous sources for much of its food supplies has led to the formation of numerous in- dustries all over the world, and especially on the North American Continent. For its bread-stuffs it may be said to be wholly depend- ent on the United States, as the quantities sent over from there entirely dwarf the receipts from European countries. Out of the amount exported to Europe, Britain receives 75 per cent, of the wheat, and 90 per cent, of the flour and corn. The wheat crop in 1880 a failure in most of the European countries was a surprisingly abundant one in the States, and it is due to this that many of these countries were saved fi'om starvation. As the intercourse between Britain and her colonies has increased closer trade relations have been established, and with none have these relations grown to greater bulk than with our Dominion. Our export of bread-stuffs are assuming gratifying pi'oportions, year by year they increase, and year by year the importance of our magnifi- cent waterways grow in like magnitude. Our exports of bread-stuffs 54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. have increased to such ])roportions as to cause the St. Lawrence to be considered a fornndable rival to the ports of the Eastern States. This loiite has opened up the way for the export of other agricultural products, among which is the important trade in cattle which has sprung up between this Province and Britain. The fattening of cattle for the British market has been carried on in our midst in such a quiet unobtrusive manner, few people are aware of the large volume of trade done in this line, or of its financial results to our Province and the Dominion. From the last return of the Bureau of Industries for the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, it is learned that our Pi'ovince exported in the years 1871-'81 :— Eggs, to the value of $ 4, 114,040 Butter " 4,240,564 Cheese " 9,277,459 If the totals given for the two Provinces be taken the exports of Eggs were of the value of $ 5,283,557 Butter " 29,625,762 Cheese " 37,243,-351 It is not necessary for the present purpose to detail the amounts which went to Britain, the States and elsewhere. The export of cattle and sheep has increased very much within the last six years, particularly to Europe. The figures to Europe, are : 1877 6,940 1878 18,655 1879 25,009 1880 50,905 1881 45,5.35 1882 35,738 The Shipments to Great Britain, were in 9,509 41,225 80,332 81,843 62,404 75,905 1880. 1881. 1882. Montreal Quebec Halifax Cattle. 35,416 9,894 5,595 Shkip. 67,943 11,208 2,692 Cattlb. Shbep. 32,722 39,218 1 9,212 , 21,809 j 3,601 1,374 Cattlb. 28,183 Shebp. 65,183 The values of horned cattle and sheep exported in 1882, were for EIGHTH ORDINARY MEETING. 55 hornp:d cattle. Province. To Britain. To United States. To All Countries. Ontario $ 72,972 2,316,604 2,706,051 $ 374,858 45,517 423,807 $ 449,590 2,363,296 3,256,330 Quebec Dominon SHEEP. Ontario.. . Quebec . . . Dominion . 20,976 446,755 510,152 f 491,640 606,050 1,228,957 Beef to the value of .f 49,7yof the Echaudoir, or particular division allotted for knocking down the animal. Bouverie, the spaces, or sheds, where the animals are kept after a journey to rest and cool till the body gets to a normal condition. Fondeurs, or boiling down houses, for meat unlit for human use, &c. Triperies, the places used for cleaning the tripe of bullocks, and the fat, heads, and tripe of sheep and calves. In addition there have been lately added a blood house, where all the blood is coagulated, or ti-eated for the albumen, which is used in 60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. calico printing. In Edinburgh, the blood which was at one time wasted is now sold and brings from £800 to £1,200 sterling per annum. One of the first requisites for a place intended for the slaughtering of cattle is absolute cleanliness, it becomes an essential to have all appliances connected with abattoirs of the cleanest and most simple and easily-cleaned nature. Vermin must also be excluded from them. In Edinburgh the houses are built of dressed stone, the floors are laid on a layer of Poj-tland cement concrete, twelve inches deep, the surface being paved with large close jointed flagstones ; the road- ways between the buildings are also laid on cement concrete, the stone blocks being laid in close sets well jointed. All abattoirs are at all times open to the inspection of city health officers, and are supi^lied with plenty of water for flushing purposes. One of the best substances for abattoir floors is cement conci-ete, which can be prepared to any degree of surface roughness, to prevent slipping ; being homogeneous and of almost indestructible consistence, it will stand any amount of wear and tear, and it is very easily washed and kept clean. Few of our Canadian cities are well placed regarding abattoir arrangements, there are too many abattoirs mixed up among dwelling- houses, and health-inspectors have not yet the compulsory powers they must have before they can abate these nuisances. The author has learned, with much surprise, that offal is still fed to hogs at many abattoirs, and that there is a decided demand and preference for ]3ork so fed. This reprehensible and dangerous custom cannot be too strongly censured. The systems adopted in England for slaughtering and handling the carcases, are shewn by the drawings on the wall, and are an enlarge- ment of the arrangements now in use at several pork packing and other factories ; this system saves all handling of the meat and pre- serves it better than in those cases where it has to be carried on men's shoulders to carts, and upon carts to the butcher stalls.* It is to be hoped that in any new abattoirs to be built in any of our cities, care will be taken to arrange everything with a view to absolute cleanliness, and that a plentiful supply of water will be laid on. Proper buildings can easily be erected for the destruction of all waste • The abattoir machinery referred to is known as Meiklejon's Patent Abattoir Machinery and Fittings. FurrliiT information on this matter can be obtained from the author. EIGHTH ORDINARY MEETING. 61 matter, or the conversion of it into chemical manure for which a market can readily be found ; by these means what is now a foul nuisance and decided evil can be remedied at a moderate cost, the health of the municipality guaranteed, and much valuable matter now being lost turned into a source of revenue. In the discussion that followed, Dr. Oldright stated that 50,000 gallons of liquid manure mingled with solid particles are daily carried into Ashbridge's Bay to the detriment of the health of those residing in the vicinity. The slaughter-houses are abominable, and that on the Don is a worse nuisance than Mr. Gooderham's byres. He thought that anything that made life less enjoyable, should, if possible, be done away with, even though it might not be practicable to show that there was a direct connexion between this particular nuisance, and the prevalence of any given disease or class of diseases. He asked the assistance of the Institute to enable the Board of Health to carry certain changes in the law in the general interest of the public. Mr. George Murray spoke as to the advisability of devising laws for the prevention of such nuisances. Mr. George Acheson raised the question as to the whole- someness of meat in which the blood has been allowed to remain. Mr. Alan Macdougall thought that to feed pigs on animal offal increased their liability to become infested with cestoidea, chiefly the trichina spiralis. [6-. HYP]SrOTISM AT^D ITS PHENOMENA. BY P. H. BRYCE, M. A., M. B., L. R. C. P. & S. Edin. (Read be/ore the Institute on the 11th Mwch, 188^.) In choosing this siibjecb upon which to base some remarks, I feel how imperfectly anything I may say can serve to convey to you any adequate idea of the strange series of phenomena attendant upon the hypnotic state. My excuse, however, for choosing it must be given in the fact that some months ago a patient came under my charge, after having passed through the liands of several physicians, who had given different opinions as to the real nature of her malady. Seeing her for the first time, I was at once struck by the similarity of her condition and appearance to certain patients I had been accustomed to see in Professor Charcot's wards in the Hospice de Salp^tri^re in Paris. Her lower limbs were found in a condition of tonic rigidity, while various clonic contractures were taking place in various other sets of muscles. With the ophthalmoscope T endeavored to make out the vascular state of the retina, but was through her movements unable to do so. To perfect, however, my diagnosis I tried the hypnotizing experiment, and in a short time she had passed into a profound slumber. After she had so passed into a slumber I raised an eyelid, thus allowing light to strike upon the eye, when I found that a state of complete cataleptic rigidity had seized upon that side of the body. My diagnosis was finally made beyond doubt when I found that the slightest pressure over the ovaries, after she was again awake, proved their state of extreme hyperassthesia by inducing an hystero- epileptic attack which was checked by continued firm pressure upon them. Before me was, in very truth, a case of Hystero-epilepsy, precisely similar to those seen in Prof. Charcot's wards, and which have excited the wonder of all scientific men, who have ever had the good fortune, while in Paris, to visit the wards of Salpdtri^re. From the nature of the case it will be impossible for us to study the phenomena of hypnotism without to some extent introducing HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. 65 other phenomena always present in hypnotic subjects (especially in hystero-epileptics) ; and since my experience of such is limited only to those persons, who have come under the charge of physicians, I shall leave to the apostles of animal-magnetism to explain the spiri- tual relations which they ostentatiously assume to exist between them- selves and those to whom they communicate the Jluidic force from their over-charged and hypermagnetic souls. I have chosen Dr. Braid's word, Hypnotism, in preference to som- nabulism as expressing more exactly the condition, and nothing more, which we wish to consider ; and further prefer it to Charcot's word of " lethargy," applied to the state, since in oiir language this word has a meaning hardly applicable to what we wish to express. Perhaps there is no subject about which have hung more awe- inspiring ideas and morbid curiosity than about this of hypnotism — or if we would rather somnabulism, mesmerism, aut alter ; and there is no scientific subject at the present time which presents more physiological difficulties or pathological interest than the hypnotic phenomena, attendant upon certain— to use the mildest term — functional maladies. It would be foreign to the yturpose of this paper for me to enter into any lengthy historical account of the many fanciful ideas, which have grown up around our subject ; nor would it be very edifying to re-count the confused mass of credulity, char- latanry, and science, which has in the past, and in many quarters does .still form part of the conception associated with the term hypnotism. Still it may be interesting to note that I have found in an edition of Galen that magnets, incantations, &c., are spoken of as therapeutic agents in mental affections ; and I may further remark that Charcot has become so convinced that the New Testament de- moniacs were persons afflicted with no other than epileptic and hystero-epileptic maladies, that, having witnessed so frequently amongst his own patients paroxysms similar to the recorded ones, he has actually had sketches made illustrative of these scriptural demoniacs. But within the present century we see an outgrowth from these pathological conditions, which have hypnotism as a phenomenon, in that pseudo-science termed variously animal-magne- tism, biology, mesmerism, &c. It would seem as if there have been too many persons so filled with love for the extraordinary that when they encounter certain facts apparently inexplicable, instead of en- deavouring calmly to search out causes pi-efer to rest in supernatural •64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. explanations. With sueli then animal-magnetism has taken its origin. According to them some mysterious, imponderable, yet potent fluid passes from person to person : the manipulator of spirits has, doubtless at first honestly, and then afterward with conscious deception, thought his power over the passive subject of his will to be due to some peculiar magnetic virtue in his own constitution. In such persons has the hydra-headed monster of Spiritualism been conceived and reai'ed ; and only recently have scientific men been found brave enough to face credulity and ignorant prejudice, and deal -with certain undoubted facts, endeavouring to explain them upon the true basis of physical and p.sychical science. We shall not trouble ourselves with the empiric consultations and diagnostications of Teste and Deleuze, finding thereby diseases that have never had an ex- istence ; nor how Vasseur- Lombard cured cancer by magnetism, nor yet of how diseased plants have been stimulated by its mysterious power to a more vigorous growth ; but we shall endeavour, in at most a very imperfect way, to study some of the phenomena of this neurosis, produced, it may be, artificially or by pathological causes. Defining then our subject, we would say that there are certain persons, mostly females, of such constitution, that they, by certain manipulations, simple or more or less complicated, may be bi'ought into such a neurotic condition as that they may be made to pass into a deep sleep in which they may be kept at will for an almost indefinite number of hours. Such then is the apparently simple fact of hypno- tism ; but this apparently simple fact, I think we shall see as we proceed, will become one both of very great interest and of much difficulty as regards its explanation. And first it becomes necessary for us to consider whether in this ■ condition of hypnotism the physical system is in exactly the same condition as in natural sleep. As we all know the factoi'S which enter into the causation of the unconscious state known as sleep are so varied that it is most natural that many explanations have been given of the state. Sbmmer, as we know, supported by Pet- tenkbfer and others, believed that sleep means exhaustion of the oxygen of the blood and tissues, which has taken place during the day, and that, when this is again stored up at night in sufficient quantity waking follows. While in all probability the fact of there being a greater consumption of oxygen during the day than at night is probably true, yet we are hardly prepared to accept the theory of HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. 65 sleep founded on one isolated tliougb comprehensive fact. Dr. Cappie's theory is one which seems to comprise many more of the factors enter- ing into the causation of sleep. Briefly, he says : (I) there is with the growing exhaustion, towards evening, of all the tissues a lessened molecular activity of the cerebral cells, and (2) coincidently there- with a change in the oapillaiy circulation of the brain so tliat less blood is supplied to the brain, and hence the volume of the brain is less. But (3) this situated within the immol)ile capsule of the cranium must have the hitherto occupied space, now again filled ; hence, as Arthur Durham remarks, the result is that the blood in the venous sinuses is increased. But further, Mr. J. Hilton, F.R.C.S., remarks that the cerebro-spinal arachnoid fluid always equipoises the haemic condition of the brain, and especially of the parts surround- ing the ventricles — thus resting the brain ; and not only so, but also the relation between this fluid and the blood is always one of unstable equilibrium. But, once more, Dr. Hughlings Jackson has shown that the ophthalmoscopic disc is in sleep always in an anaemic condition. Now all this seems simple enough, yet I doubt not that many abnormal states may arise which will be found diflicult to co- apt with this theory. However, this theory would further seem to be supported by what we find present in many pathological condi- tions. Thus we know that in active delirium, dependent upon an hyperaemia and inflammation of the brain, sleeplessness is a common symptom, e. y., acute mania and the early stages of acute menino'itis while again in the later stages of both there is unconsciousness and more or less complete coma arising from venous stasis and effusion of lymph into the cerebral tissues. This in an organ with such an enor- mous capillary circulation — the encephalon containing, accordino- to Haller, ^ of the total blood of the body — must produce the most dis- astrous effects upon its functional activity as has been experimentally shown in many ways. Thus pressure upon a portion of brain exposed by a fractured cranium has immediately produced a suspension of its functional activity, thereby inducing unconsciousness. That it is anaemia which has produced this state is evident from the fact that a removal of the pressure brings back immediately functional activity of the part. Before we endeavour to draw a pai-allel between the physical con- ditions of natural sleep and induced hypnotism, we shall try and ex- plain how the anaemia of natural sleep is produced. 5 66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. First, then, we think it now conceded by all that there is a natural law by which all organic life unconsciously seeks rest, in order as it were to store up energy for the renewal of active functions. As far as we know all animals follow this law : we know as well thatplant* do. How this takes place in plants we know in the fact that the actinic rays of the sun, aiding the decomposition of carbonic acid by the plant and the assimilation by it of carbon, thereby become the exact idex of this functional activity. Nothing then seems more certain than that man's physical, and likewise intellectual, natui'e seeks in sleep that rest which enables the various organs to revitalize themselves by both lessening the physical waste, and the storing up of new energy. But this process, inherent in the natural constitution of man, must of course be carried on by means of natural processes. What are these 1 Following out embryogenic changes we must necessarily place nutiution of blood and its renovation first. But since nerve force is that which evolutionary progress has cariied to its highest point of development in man, we t'eol that in adult man it should almost be placed first, so potent a regulator has it become of the processes of nutrition. We may say then that nerve force exists through all the degrees from extreme nerve tension to that of complete nerve relaxation, the various degrees depending upon the ability to assimilate nourishment, derived from the blood and external warmth, light, exercise, &c. Now in trying to explain physical phenomena and the part played by nerve matter in them, it is neces- sary to proceed with the greatest caution, since we frequently find popular expressions and scientific expressions diameterically opposed to one another. Thus the popular expression for nerve anaemia or nerve debility is nervousness, which in reality ought to mean the very opposite, viz., nerve force; and so a whole series of misused expressions originating in wrong pathological ideas might be given. Starting then somewhere in the complex circle of cause and efiect let us suppose that nerve force is given. Now it seems generally accepted that the ganglionic system of nerves, which especially sub- serves the functions of organic life, is that too which, by giving nerve supply to the muscular tissue of the blood vessels, regulates the blood supply of a part, either by contraction of the walls lessening the blood supply, or relaxation causing a temporary hyperaemia. (It should be noticed here that the hyperaemia attendant upon inflam- mation seems to some extent at least dependent upon some morbid HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. 6f condition of the blood, affecting the vitality of the walls of the vessels ; but more probably it is largely due to sensory reflex action of the nerves.) TJiat this latter seems the commoner mode of action would seem to be shown from the fact that emotional influences of joy and pleasui'e with their opposites of sorrow and anger, produce their regular effects of heightened circulation in the capillaries in the one case, and pallor fiom spasmodic contraction of the same ves- sels in the other. We must here add to this the important factor of sympathetic nervous influence| directly exerted upon the heart, pro- bably from the vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata upon the accelerator ganglion in the one iristance, and the depressor ganglion in the other, both of which have their supposed centres in its muscu- lar tissues. We now would seem to have suflicient data wherewith to jjroceed in our endeavour to explain the phenomena of hypnotism. We have explained the supposed physical conditions tending to produce sleep. Have we the same present in induced hypnotism ? It seems to me that in a large degree we have. It is perfectly well known that the hypnotic state cannot be produced at will in all persons, and in others only with various degrees of ease. It is true, moreover, that })ersons in whom hypnotism can be produced are almost invariably those of an emotional tendency, or those in whom the equilibrium which in health exists between the cerebral and spinal systems is most readily destroyed — certainly those in whom the sympathetic nervous system is most readily acted upon. Nothing can express our views upon this point more exactly than the quotation of M. Jaccoud's remarks concerning hysteria. He says : " The physiological charactei-istics of Hysteria depend upon the importance of the opposing relations which exist between voluntary or cerebral innervation, and the involuntary or spinal. The performance of the regular functions of the nervous apparatus depends upon the natural and innate subordination of spinal activity to that of the cerebrum ; this established hierarchy (which demonstrates among other things the experimental study of reflex motility) is the absolute condition of the normal harmony of the nervous functions. Now in hysteria this harmonic equilibrium is always broken and always in favour of the spinal cord ; thus is produced a disorder which bears fatally upon the collective functions of innervation — a veritable cerebro- spinal ataxia which constitutes and chai'acterizes the decay of cerebral action, and the predominance 68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. of spinal action." He further remarks that the physiologist may produce the same condition in tliree ways : ( 1 ) by exaggerating the excitability of the spinal system by irritation of the centripetal nerves; "2) by exaggerating directly the action of the cord itself; and (3) by suppressing the functions of the brain. These three conditions have each their pathological analogies, and they contain in themselves the totality of the pathogenic conditions of hysteria. Whatever has been the causation of this malady> he further says, we have always these two fundamental elements united, viz. : (1) the weakening of cerebral action, especially that of the will, and (2) the exaggeration of the automatic or spinal action (hyperkinesie spinal e). Tims we see that in these hysterical patients we have emotional subjects who are readily impressed by whatever may affect the sympathetic system, in other words, who are ruled too frequently by the emotions and too seldom by the will, — or as M. Jaccoud so well expresses it: "There is at least temporarily ])resent a cerebral paresis." Now physiologically what does this mean 1 It must mean, if we adhere rigidly to the belief that the moi-e or less complete abeyance of functional activity in a part is necessarily dependent upon a corresponding temporary absence of force-i)roducing materials in the part, and, so far as we know, this means ai'terialized blood. For instance, pallor is an anaemia of the capillaries of the skin ; while we have, unfortunately, too many examples showing that the functional activity of an arm or leg depends directly upon its nutri- tion. Moreover, our best authors give among the causes of hysteria, loss of blood, prolonged lactation, &c. The first of these shows that other than purely female disorders may be causes of this malady, i. e., hysteria may occur in delicate and impressionable males as well as in females. In claiming the anaemia theory as explaining these states I am perfectly well aware that there are some authorities, notably Brown. Sequard, who are opposed to it as being in many cases a sufficient . explanation of either hysteria or epilepsy. I find in notes taken from his lectures on the peripheral irritation of nerves, that his explana- tion of these pathological conditions is not on the supposition of any .slow or sudden unequal distribution of blood to the brain, but that he considers the attacks essentially due to reflex action from pei'i- ;pheral sensations creating impressions upon the brain centres. Then HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. 69 follows a citation of eases where peripheral irritation induced epileptic attacks. No doubt these cases are facts, but I am inclined to the belief that most, if not all, of thein can be explained on the anaemia theory. Let us select one example from many. He cites a case where disease of the supra-renal ca})sules induced epileptic attacks. Now, here it would seem as if we had present much the same sort of peripheral irritation of the nerves, which we have Ln ovarian hyper- aesthesia, &.c. ; and each is followed by an attack or paroxysm, due, we have reason to believe, to the irritation to the ganglionic nervous system inducing contraction of the brain, capillaries, &c. But, to proceed, assuming that since the hypnotic state is induced principally in persons of natural or induced emotional tendencies, and that in such there is present more or less of a cerebro-spinal ataxia, i. e., a temporary suppression of will power or cerebral force, we neces- sarily have present a condition of cerebral anaemia, or the very same physiological condition which Cappie, Durham, Jackson, Schiff, ikc, agree, is present in noi-mal sleep. Let us now refer to some of the conditions which exist in hypnotic individuals. You will remember the hyi)notizing expei'iment used as a diagnostic aid in the case already jeferred to. The method, as remarked by Prof. Charcot, made use of for inducing the hypnotic state is for the most part immaterial, the subjective state of the patient being apparently the necessary condition. What, however, in most cases seems necessary is a fixity of gaze, or at least some impres- sion made upon the visual organs, v/hich we may consider in the light of an irritant. Thus the patient looking tixedly for a few seconds at a single point, placed a few inches in front, and a little above the level of the eyes, is seen to have the pupils first contract and then soon dilate, with this the eyelids are seen to droop, and the patient simul- taneously shows signs of muscular relaxation ; the head falls to one side or forward, stridulous breathing supervenes for a few moments, then the patient passes into a profound sleep. Other means, such as looking at a bright piece of silver, the Drummond light, or even closure of the eyelid with slight pressure on the eyeball, have all been used, pi'oducing the same results. We are now brought to the exceedingly difficult question of the physiological changes which have here taken place. To physiology, rather than pathology, must we look for our answer. First, then, we recognize the fact that the impression made l)y light or by pressure is made uj>oii the retina. 70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. thence tlie optic nerve. Tlius, with the light we have the special irritant applied to this nerve of a special sense ; and, as proved anatomically as well as by physiological experiments, this nerve reflects its impression along the third (3rd) nerve to the iris, through the ophthalmic ganglion, and, as we know, instantaneous iris con- traction is the result. But the iuipi-ession reflected upon this gang- lion lias for us the highest interest. In it are ganglion cells with fibres connecting with other sympathetic ganglia. Now, however great or little may be the optic sensibility here, we are certain of one thing in these cases, and that is of an extreme hyperaesthesia of the gang- lionic nervous system. Since externally in the changes of the iris, we can see the proof of the above supposition, it seems logical for us to assume that the sensation reflected from the o})tic nerve creates upon the ganglionic system such an impression that it is communicated to the vaso-motor centi-e — seated in the medulla oblongata^of the cerebral arteries ; and that thence is communicated an irritation which causes an instantaneous contraction of the cere- bral arteries, (possiVjly also by the irritation supplied to the depressor ganglion of the heart,) thus creating an anaemia, an abeyance of cerebral functions, and as a consequence the hypnotic state. This hypothesis seems quite the same as the one by which Ferrier accounts for related cases, where from emotional states, as anger, (tc, spasm of some of the cerebral arteries has taken place, producing tempoi'ary blindness, deafness or aphasia, or which wer.i relieved by the use of the magnet overcoming the s|)asm. We must not forget to note as a factor in this hypnotizing process, that in all such subjects the will-power has been passing into abeyance, since we have already seen that in projtortion, as this is absent the spinal, and certainly the sympathetic, hyper-excitability is increased. Here again let me quote from M. Jaccoud on " Cerebro-Spinal Irritation," woi-ds appropriately describing the condition here present. He says:—" The abnormal excitation of the cerebro-spinal system, causes its tirst effects to be felt upon the vaso-motor system, whose impressibility is so readily shown by the instantaneous production of pallor and of blushing, whence an anaemia or rather secondary ischaemia, both of brain and cord, which increases the disorder of excitability and transforms it into a persistent conditi(m of irritable feebleness. Both clinical facts as shown by Ferrier and the experi- ments of Van der Becke, Callenfels, Nathnagel, and Krishaber have HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENOMENA. 71 placed these liy])otheses in the region of verified facts." How incon- ceivably impressible is the nerve system to influences, seems to be further substantiated from recent experiments by Jaeger, so wholly new, and, if true, so remarkable that I cannot refi-ain from a brief reference. To use his own words concerning his experiments with the chronoscope, he says, with reference to neural analysis : — " My discovery i-elates chiefly to the (femeiagefiUd (collective-feeling, ■emotions), which by physiologists is distinctly separated from the perception by the senses (the })hilologieal difference between soul and mind corresponds exactly to this physiological difterence). The essential peeuliaj'ity of the emotions is that the accompanying func- tional changes are not limited only to a few anatomical parts of the body, but concern all parts of its muscles, nerves, glands, ifec. In other words emotion is a condition of the whole body. Hence it follows that not only the sensory nerves undergo a change, but also the muscular or (/. e., motor) nerves. That which is changed is the nervous excitability, and that which produces these changes are soluble substances which enter into the liquids of the body, and amongst which the volatile ones (odorous) [)roduce the greatest effects. The changes of excitabilitj- ai-e indicated by the motor nerves as a quantitative index of the conductibility of these nerves for [)ercep- tions. Thus we are enabled graphically to illustrate the peculiarity of the emotions by registering an involuntary movement, viz., that of the heart, since every such substance entering the system affects the rhythm of heart and pulse, and may be measured by the sphygmo- graph. Thus what the nerve of smell, smells, nerve of taste, tastes, and nerve of sight, sees, are all registered by the muscle nerve. He then gives diagrams of sphygmograi)hic tracings of curves of joy (Jargonelle pears), of anger (rancid butter), of nausea (bad drinking water, &c. ). Now. allowing that there is a basis of fact underlying what to many may seem fanciful theorizing, we furtlier see how im- pressible is the nervous system, as shown time and again by Charcot's method for ending the hypnotic state by simply a puff of breath upon the face of the patient. From these extended i-emarks, then, it would seem as if we have something like a definite explanation jjossible of the causation of the hypnotic state, which we Jn'ay describe as at least a functional patho- logical state, having its near analogue physiologically in sleep, but with several additional phenomena superadded; and of all these the 72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. most prominent is a remarkable condition of general hyperaesthesia of the spinal system of nerves. But we must beware of making this a too distinctive phenomenon of hypnotism, since we know that not only are different individuals very differently susceptible to external influences while asleep, but also that the same person at different times sleeps with varying degrees of sensibility to external impressions. We have now to notice the condition into which the svstem is thrown during tlie somnabulistic state. Necessarily it is one in which cerebral force is wholly in abeyance. A most interesting illusti'ation of this is seen in some of M. Charcot's experiments. For instance, a patient whom we may call Marie, is hypnotized ; her eyes are opened by the operator, and she is told to look carefully at the bystander, that he is Ernestine, a friend of hers. Her eyes are again closed and her friend Ernestine is brought forward, and in the same manner Marie is told that Ernestine is the bystander. The operator now puffs upon her face anle to other persons, these sounds pi-oducing similar reflex movements to those of sight. Besides such examples we have many other examples of reflex spinal acts, as nausea and vomiting from Ijad sights or odours, quite apart it may be from any mental emotion. What, however, is most to be remarked in all tliese cases of undue reflex spinal acts, in these functional maladies at ;invrate, is that their force is exactly in HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHEEOMENA. 73 proportion as cerebral influence is in abeyance ; and further we notice that the longer this state exists so much the moi-e difficult is it to regain cerebral control over reflex spinal movements. Many instances of this latter fact have been witnessed in the hystero- epileptic patient already alluded to. Thus while examining the eye with the ophthalmoscope I have asked her to look down, uj), (fee. At times this has been done with ease, while at others no apparent efibrts on her part could ovei'come the ataxia due to the lack of cere- bral force over reflex spinal action. Again the hyper-excitabilily of afferent sensory nerves induced by this condition is in its efiects readily appreciated. Let us suppose a patient liypnotized and sleep- ing quietly, the whole muscular system being apparently relaxed.. Here we find that the sensibility is so great that vei-y slight friction along the course of any nerve causes tonic contractures of the corres- ponding muscles supplied by its branches to take place. This I have frequently witnessed in sets of muscles in all parts of the body. What the pathological condition is, inducing this state is in some in- stances difficult to explain ; but a curious experiment which I had the good foi'tune to witness in M. Charcot's laboratory would seem to tlirow some light upon the subject. There was present a patient, very healthy-looking, well developed, of fair complexion, and of sanguine temperament, but one of peculiarly emotional tendencies. The experiment upon her was as follows : She, having been first hyp- notized, was sleeping peacefully while sitting in her chair. An assistant now bandaged the right arm, and having tied it above the bandage showed it to be anaemic. Now by slight pressure upon the ulnar nerve at the elbow the form of concracture en griffe was set up- in the corresponding fingers of that side. A large magnet was then placed in contact with the left arm when, wonderful to relate, there followed a slight muscular tremor in the muscles of the left arm, and thereafter the same contractures took place in the muscles of that hand, the contractures on the right side being correspondingly re- laxed at the same time, but by irritation were again induced, there being contractures thus present in both at once. I did not hear M. Charcot's theory as to the causation of this phenomenon, but it seems to me that we have a right to assume that : — (1) anaemia of the right arm made it verv irritable and sensible of impressions ; (2) when the cerebrum was even slightly impi'essed it set up motor reflex action and contractions took place ; (3) and in the third, and 74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. strangest of all, that of the magnet's influence, we must assume that it, like the static electricity of the plate electric machine pro- duces with its high tension a state of extreme hyperaesthesia, or impressibility, so that the impression made upon the sensory centres from the right arm irritation, is now great enougli to excite through the commissural fibres the same reflex action on the left side. But further, it was found that on removing the tourniquet from the right arm the contractures of the left gradually relaxed, and the con- tractures came back again in the right arm, but slowly and not very completely. We must confess that we have present what seem to be at first two contradictory phenomena : (a) anaemia producing hyper-excita- bility in one arm, (b) while in the other tonic magnetic influence has produced, at least as far as effects go, a similar state of great sensibility. But though we may fail in fully explaining tliis peculiai- condition, yet I think we can gain at least one step in advance by noticing an explanation given by Dr. Broadbent concerning some of the causes of paralysis from hemorrhage into the corpora striata and thalami optici. He thinks it can be shown that where the muscles of cor- responding parts of the body constantly act In concert the nerve nuclei of these muscles are so connected by commissural fibres as to be pro tanto a single nucleus. Now supposing that the magnetic influence has greatly increased the impressibility of the left side we may fairly infer that the reflex action setting forth from the sensorial nucleus which was impressed by the irritation on the right side, and which caused the tonic contraction of muscles in the right arm (being of a certain quantity which we may call x), has been transferred to that muscle having the greater temporary conductibility. Thus we have now relaxation in the muscles of the right arm, and the pheno- menon of tonic contraction in those of the left. Let us now remove the temporary stimulus of the magnet and we have the original im- pression made upon the nucleus, again transferred to the right arm but in a greatly diminished degree, since this side has again become that of greatest excitability. Before closing there is another condition induced in patients whilst in the hypnotic state so .strange — we might say marvellous — and unusual that it demands some few remarks. I refer to the remark already made that, when the one eye of a hypnotized patient is HYPNOTISM AND ITS PHENUMENA. 75 opened, the impression produced, we must assume, by light induces some new condition by whicli that side of the body of the patient is thrown into a cataleptic state. Now before inquiring what this change is, it may be well for us to try and explain the pathological condition present in a catalepsy which may attack persons without their first passing into the hypnotized state. At the outset we must confess to the unsatisfactory information which most of our authors give us on the subject. All that even Bristow says is, " that in cataleptics we have a class of cases difficult to classify, and difficult to attach to specific lesions or specific conditions of the nervous system." We do find, however, in M. Jaccoud already quoted from something which really does aid us. He says : — '" Catalepsy is a spasmodic paroxysm and is constituted of two elements: (1) the suspension of cerebral operations, or their external manifestations ; (2) the increase of the spontaneous and reflex tonicity (innervation de stabilitd) in the muscles of animal life. Tlie abolition of cerebral action presents itself under two forms (rather degrees) which imply different organic localizations : in one (a) there is total loss of consciousness, viz., of sensation, perception, ideaism and its consecutive acts, and this can be interpreted only by the inertia of the grey substance of the hemispheres ; in the other (6) consciousness is not suspended, perception and ideasim are com- ■plete, but lack the last link of the chain, i. e., the motor intuition cannot be communicated to the motor apparatus. Here it is clear the cortical substance is normal, but the inertia is in th(5 conductive fibres which bind together the organizing apparatus and the performing ai)pa- ratus. Nevertheless the result is the same ; tonic spasm is present, keeping various sets of muscles in whatever position placed. And this tonic spasm (spasmes du tonics) is a lasting tension. Here we have a most noticeable fact in the marked increase in the innervation of of stability. The tension keej)ing up this stable condition of the muscles must be looked upon as a reflex phenomenon, provoked by the molecular change (elongation or shoi-tening) which the communi- •cative movements cause the muscles to undergo. It is this molecular change which is the centripetal excitation necessary to all reflex movements ; and this stimulus repeats itself every time that the muscle is moved. One difficulty exists in the constant relation which binds the quantity of tension to that of passive movement in such a way that tiie reflex spasm pi'oduced by this latter is always 76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. rigidly adequate to it, and arrests the muscles exactly in the position which one gives to them. Benedikt notes, concerning this point, that according to the researches of Volkmann the contractile capacity of muscle augments or diminishes according as it is shortened or elongated by traction." Evidently, we think, M. Jaccoud has thrown much light on the pathology of the symjjtoms of catalepsy ; but as he says, the causation of the malady is yet obscure ; — or, how are produced those opposed states of the cerebral and spinal centres, and why are the symptoms limited to the muscles of animal life 'I Referring again to the cataleptic condition associated with the hypnotic state, we ask what changes take place in the system, which by the simple raising of an eyelid effect the change into what M. Jaccoud says is .one of increased spontaneous and reflex tonicity 1 First, then, in hypnotism the first of Jaccoud's cataleptic postu- lates is present, viz., the suspension of cerebral operations and their external manifestations. How has it been possible for light to pro- duce all these changes? We have already noted the hyper-excita- bility of the muscular nerves present in hypnotism, causing muscular contractions when subject to the slightest irritation. We have furthei- supposed that light has been the excitant or irritant inducing sleep with cei*ebral force in abeyance. Again we must remember the muscular relaxation taking place when hypnotism is induced. Evidently then our assumed nerve spasm has here passed off. But on opening the eye of the patient the excitant is again present with cerebral operations wholly in abeyance ; hence we may suppose that the irritant affecting the optic nerve not only renews the spasm previously present and setting out from the sympathetic nerve cells residing in the medulla oblongata, thereby not only making the cerebrospinal ataxia more complete, but also as a consequence leaving the spinal cord perfectly separated from cerebral influence ; and, moreover, having an irritant in the form of light constantly .producing a central influence upon it, we have it held in a .state accurately defined by M. Jaccoud as innervation de stahilite. Bat, gentlemen, oui- already too long paper must be brought to a close. These hypotheses and suggestions are only made by us as possible explanations of , and of other primitive roots of unity must have, in order that the substitution of any one of certain primi- tive n^^ roots of unity, w^, w^, co^, etc., for w^ in the given function may leave the value of the function unaltered. Relation that must subsist among the roots Wj, w^, etc. , that satisfy such a condition. §20. 4. If a simplified expression which is the root of a i^ational irreducible equation of the N^^ degree involve a surd of the highest rank (§3) not a I'oot of unity, whose index is — , the denominator of the index being a prime number, iV is a multiple of m. But if the simplified root involve no surds that are not roots of unity, and if one of the surds involved in it be the primitive ?i*'^ root of unity, N is a multiple of a measure of n — 1. %2%. 5. Two classes of solvable equations. §30. 6. The simplified root r^ of a rational irreducible equation F{x) = of the rn*''^ degree, 7n prime, which can be solved in algebraical func- tions, is of the form 6 80 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS 1 2 3 m-2 m-1 where g is rational, and a^, &,, etc., involve only surds subordinate to 1 A,"* . §38, 47. 7. The equation J*" (x) = has an auxiliary equatiou of the (m - 1)'^ degree. §35, 52. 8. If the roots of the auxiliary be A^, (\, <\, . . , Sm _ i, the m — 1 expressions in each of the groups 1 _i_ _i i_ ji_ 1 m in m in m m m in m m 1 j/i — 2' 2 m — 4 3 J\_ _3 ]_ _3_ 1 '^l '^m_3' ^ '^m-6'----' ^« - 1 '^3 ' and so on, are the roots of a rational equation of the [m - ly^ degree. _,, 111 — 1 The terms _j. ]_ _i i_ _j_ 1 m m m m rn m 1 m — I • 2 9/1 — 2 ' ' m — 1 m + 1 ' 2 2~ — - — I degree. §39, 44, 55. 9. Wider generalization. §45, 57. 10. When the equation F{x) = is of the first class, the auxiliary equation of the (?« — 1)* degree is irreducible. §35. Also the roots of the auxiliary are rational functions of the primitive vi^^ root of unity. §36. And, in the particular case wheu the equation F{x) = is the reducing Gaussian equation of the ra^^ degree to the equation ,,M _ 1 - 0, each of the — - — expressions, _i i_ _i ]_ 1 m — 1' 2 m — 2' ' has the rational value n. §41. Numerical verification. §42. OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 81 11. Solution of the Gaussian. §43. 12. Analysis of solvable in'edncible equations of the fifth degree. The auxiliary biquadratic either is irreducible, or has an irreducible sub-auxiliary of the second degree, or has all its I'oots rational. The three cases considered separately. Deduction of Abel's expression for the roots of a solvable quintic. §.58-74. PRINCIPLES. §1. It will be understood that the surds appearing in the present paper have ^:)Hme numbers for the denominators of their indices, 1 uidcss where the contrary is expressly staled. Thus, 21^ may be 1^ 1 I'egarded as h^ , a surd with the index J, h being 2^ . It will be imderstood also that no surd apjiears in the denominator of a fraction. 2 . 1 — v'^ For instance, instead of =^ we should write — - — . 1 -)- V - 3 2 When a sui-d is spoken of as occurring in an algebraical expression, it may be present in more than one of its powers, and need not be present in the first. §2. In such an expression asV2-i-(l+ V2),v/2is subordi- nate to the 2)rincipal surd (1 + \/ '2) , the latter being the only prin- cipal surd in the expression. §3. A surd that has no other surd subordinate to it may be said to 1 be of the first rank ; and the surd h '^ , w^here h involves a sui-d of the (a — 1)**^ rank, but none of a higher i-ank, may be said to be of the a^^^ rank. In estimating the rank of a surd, the denominators of the indices of the surds concerned are always supposed to be prime numbers. Thus, 3* is a surd of the second rank. §4. An algebraical expression in which J "' is a principal (see §2) surd may be arranged according to the powers of J ™ lower than the /?i*'\ thus, -^(^1 + ki J^+ ai A^ + 6i J^"^ +....+ e,A^"' + h, J^ )(1) where g^, k^, ai, etc., are clear of J^'" . 82 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS §5. If an algebrical expression ri, arranged as in (1), be zero, while the coefficients (/i, kj, etc., are not all zero, an equation 1 m must subsist ; where oj is an rn^^^ root of unity ; and ^i is an expression 1 involving only such surds exclusive of J "^ as occur in ri . For, let the first of the coefficients Ai, ei, etc., proceeding in the order of the 1 descending powers of J "* , that is not zero, be «], the coefficient of s J '"■ . Then we may put 1 s mvi = ni'^j { J_^ )\ = m J^ + etc. ^ 0. 1 Because J is a root of each of the equations / (x) = and x^ — Ji = 0,f[x) and a?"* — zli have a common measure. Lot their H. 0. M., involving only such surds as occur iny(.T) and .-c"' — Ji, be cp (x). Then, because 4' {^) is a measure of x'^ — Ji, the roots of the equation f (x) = x'^ + pix'^~^ + p-ix'^-" 4. etc. = J_ j_ j_ j_ m, m m m ,. are J , a»iJ , w^A ,...., ojc-.\ J ; where wi, "^ -^i = ^i- §6. Let ri be an algebraical expression in Aihich no root of unity 1 having a rational value occurs in the surd form 1 "i . Also let thei'e 1 be in ri no surd J not a root of unity, such that OF THE HIGHER PECJUEi:?, WITH APPLICATIONS. 83 1 m -'i - ^1 ' <3) where ei is an expression iuvolving no surds of so high a rank as 1 tn J except such as either are I'oots of unity, or occur in r^ being :it 1 971 the same time distinct from A . Tlie expression ri may then lie said to have been simplified or to be in a simple state. §7. Some iUustrations of the definition in §6 may be given. The root 8i cannot occur in a simplified expression 7i ; for its value is 2w, CO being a third root of unity ; but the equation 8^ = 2io is of the inadmissible type (3). Again, the root y/5 cannot occur in a simplified expression ; for, u)\ being a primitive fifth root of xxnity, V5 = 2 {(uy + io'\) + 1 ; an equation of the tyy)e (3). Once more, a root of the cubic equation x^ — 3a; — 4 = 0, in the form {2 + V 3)i + (2 - ■/ 3)^ , is not in a simple state, because (2 - V3)4 - (2 - v/3) (2 + V3)*. m — 1 m — 1 §8. Let piJi + 2yzAi + . . + p^, = ; (4) 1 where A is a surd occurring in a simplified expression n ; and jp], 1 P2, etc., involve no surds of so high a rank as A , except such as either are roots of unity, or occur in ri being at the same time distinct 1 from A . The coefficients pi, po, etc., must be zero separately. 1 For, hy §5, if they were not, we should have u>A = l-^, lo being an 7/1*^ root of unity, and li involving only surds in (4) distinct from 1 A ; an equation of the inadmissible type (3). §9. The expression ri being in a simple state, we may use ^ as a generic symbol to include the various particular expressions, say **b ^2» *'3) 6tc., obtained by assigning all their possible values to the surds involved in r\, with the restriction that, where the base of a surd is unity, the rational value of the surd is not to be taken into account. These particular expressions, not necessarily all unequal, may be called the ^yarticular cognate forms of B. For instance, if Ti — li, a has two particular cognate forms, the rational value of the 84 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS third root of unity not being counted. If ri = (1 + V 2)*, R has six particular cognate forms all unequal. Should ri = (2 + V 3)* + (2 — V 3) (2 + y 3)S, R has six particular cognate forms, but only three unequal, each of the unequal forms occurring twice. §10. Proposition I. An algebraical expression ?i can always be brought to a simple state. 1 For Ti may be cleared of all surds such as 1 "^ having a rational 1 value. Suppose that ?•] then involves a surd J , not a root of unity, by means of which an equation such as (3) can be formed. Substitute tn for J in ri its value ei as thus given. The result will be to elimi- 1 nate J from I'x without introducing into the expression any neio 1 surd as high in rank as J , and at the same time not a root of unity. By continuing to make all the eliminations of this kind that are possible, we at last reach a point where no equation of the type (3) can any longer be formed. Then because, by the course that has 1 been pursued, no roots of the form 1 '" having a rational value have been left in ri, ri is in a simple state. §11. It is known that, if N be any whole number, the equation whose roots are the primitive N^^ roots of unity is rational and irreducible. §12. Let N be the continued product of the distinct prime numbej's n, a, b, etc. Let wi be a primitive ?i**' root of unity, Oi a primitive a^^ root of unity, and so on. Let oj represent any one indifferently of the primitive n^^ roots of unity, any one indifferently of the primitive a^^ roots of unity, and so on. Let/(wi, 6^1, etc.,) be a rational function of wi, ^,, etc. Then a corollary from §11 is, that if /(m, 01, etc.) = 0,/(w, 0, etc.) = 0. For ti being a primitive N^'^ root of unity, and t representing any one indifferently of the primitive iVth roots of unity, we may jjut /(oji, ^Vi, etc.) = aih + aoh ~ " + etc. = 0, andy"(a), 0, etc.) — ait " + a^t^ ^ + etc. ; where the coefficients oi, a^, etc., are rational. Should these coeffi- cients be all zero, /(oj, 0, etc.) = 0. Should they not be all zero, let II r be the first that is not zero. Then we may put /(wi, 01, etc.) = ar { f (ti) } = arh " '^ + etc. -= 0. OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 85 Therefore, ti is a root of the rational equation (p (x) = 0, being at the same time a root ol the rational (see §11) equation xp {x) — 0, whose roots are the primitive N^^ roots of unity. Hence ^j {x) and cr {pc) have a common measure. But by §11, i// {x) is irreducible. Therefoi-e it is a measure of tp (x) ; and the roots of the equation \p (x) = are roots of the equation (p (x) = 0. Therefore, /(co, 0, etc.) = (tr \

the series (7) either consists of a single term or it is made up of a cycle of primitive n^^ roots of unity, \ A« A?-i wi , wi , wi ,...., wi ; (18> that is to say, no term in (8) after the first is equal to the first, but u)\ = wj. Also, if (let it Vje kejjt in view that n is prime) the cycle that contains all the primitive n^'^ roots of unity be Wl , Wi , Wi ,...., wi , (9) and if Ci be the sum of tlie terms in the cycle (8), the form of F (x) is- F (X) = xd- (piCr + P2C2 + .... + PmCm) X^ -^ -\- ^^ (qiCi + qiC-z + etc.) x'^-^ + etc. ^ where each of the expressions in the series C\, C-z, C3, etc., is what the immediately preceding term becomes by changing wi into "'I 1 Cm through this change becoming Ci ; and ;?!, 2^2, Qi, etc., are clear of oji. For, assuming that there is a term wo ii^ (7) additional to wi, we may take 0*2 to be the first term in (9) after cui that occurs in (7) ; and it may be considered to be wi , which may be otherwise written A . . (ui . Then, if F (x) be written ^ (aii), we have by hypothesis OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 89 A . ■ . A A tp {u)\) ^ (p (lui ). Therefore, by §12, changing wi into coi ,

nato forms 1 " _i_ of R ; and let ^^ , ^ , K + i , etc., be respectively what J^ , h^ , etc., become in passing from ri to r„ ^ i . Also let the 7n jmrticular cognate forms of i?, obtained by changing J in 7-« + i successively into the different to*'* roots of J^ + i , be ''a + 1 ,'■« + •: , . . . . , Ta + ,a ■ (15) I These tei-ms are all unequal. For, because J is a principal surd in '/'i , and r-) is what ri becomes when J is changed into a surd whose value is ^i J , wi being a primitive vi^^'^ root of unity, the \iew may be taken that r-i involves no suids additional to those found in rj , except the primitive ?n^^ root of unity wi . Therefoie ?'i — r-^ involves no surds distinct from primitive ■m'''^ roots of unity that are not found in the simplified ex])ression 9-] . Therefore r^ — r-2 is in a simple state. 1 1 Let ?•« + 2 he what Ta + i becomes by changing J into a»iJ Then Va + i — Va + -j is a particular cognate form of the generic expression under which the simplified expression ri — rz falls. Therefore ?•« + i — ■J'a + 2 cannot be zero , for, if it were, ri — r^ would, by Cor. 2, Prop. lit'., be zero ; which, by the j)roposition, is impossible. Hence, the first two terms in (15) are unequal. In like manner all the terms in (15) are unequal. §24. Cor. 2. Let Xj = be the equation whose roots are the terms in (14). When Xi is modified according to §21, it is, by §16, m clear of the surd J . Should it involve any nurds tliat are not 1 roots of unity, take z a surd of the highest rank not a root of 1 unity in Xi : and, when z is changed successively into the different c^^ roots of the determinate base 2i , let Xx, Ti, A-,, .... ,xt~'\ (16) be respectively what X\ becomes. Any term in (16), as A'l , being selected, the m roots of the equation A'l = are unequal particular 92 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS I cognate forms of R. For, z^ being a c^^ j-oot of si distinct from z_^ , let Ta + 1 be what n becomes when z becomes z ; the ex- 1 i_ pressions J , Ai , etc., at the same time becoming J , ha + i, etc. Then we may put c — 1 c — 2 Xi = a;'^ + (Jsi <^ + dz^ + etc.) a;"*-! + etc. ; (17) 1 where b, d, etc., are clear of z . Therefore, because ri is a root of the equation Xi = 0, 1 m — 1 j - (AiJ"^ + etc.) \ "^ c — \ c — 1 1 m — \ + {6s c -I- dz c -f etc.) j — (hiJ"^^ + etc.) I "» -1 -f etc. = 0. 1 1 ' ( m ' 1 ' ) All the surds in this equation occur in the simplitied expression ri . Therefore, by Prop. II., OT — 1 > m 1 m — i - (A« + iJ~^^ + etc.) !"" m a + \ \ c—1 C— 2 -J CT — 1 + (bz <= + dz + etc)S - (ha + iZl '« -f etc.) V" " ^ +etc. = 0. 2 2 / m ^ o + 1 I Therefore"^ {ha + iJ^ -|- etc.) or r,, + i is a root ot the equation c — 1 Xi = a;™ + {bz^ " + etc.) .t'"-i + etc. = 0. (18) Therefore also, by Cor. Prop. II., all the terms in (15) are roots of that equation. And, by Cor. 1, the terms in (15) are all unequal. Therefore the equation Xi = has vi unequal particular cognate forms of B for its roots. §25. Cor. 3. No two of the exj)ressions in (16), as Xi and Xi, are identical with one another. For, in order that Xi and Xi might be identical, the coefficients of the several powers of x in Xi would need to be equal to those of the corresponding powers of x in Xi ; but, if OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 93 1 one of the coefficients of X\ be selected in which ;: is present, this coeflicient can be shown to be unequal to the corresponding coefficieut in Xi in the same way in whicli the terms in (15) were proved to be all unequal. §26. Cor. 4. Any two of the terms in (16), as Xi and Xi . being selected, the equations Xi = and Xi = have no root in common. For, suppose, if possible, that these equations have a root in common. Taking the forms of Xi and Xi in (17) and (18), since ri is a root of the equation A'l = 0, c — 1 ^ + (^^2 ' + ^*^«-) ''7"' + et«- = 0- (19) m — 1 1 All the surds in this equation except z occur in ri . It is impossible 1 1 1 1 that z can occur in ri ; for, z occurs in ri ; and z, = O-^z > 1 Oi being a primitive c^^ root of unity ; but this equation, if both z " 1 c and «., occurred in ri , would be of the inadmissible type (3). 1 Since z does not occur in ri , it is a principal (see §2) surd in (19). We may, therefore, keeping in view that ri is the expression (1) in w . which J is a principal surd, arrange (19) thus, 1 m — 1 c — 1 c — 2 m . m . c c f (-^1 ) = ^1 (P^-2 + P-^-2 + ^*<^-) m — 2 e — 1 c — 2 m c c + ^1 (?i-^ + '?--2 + etc.) + etc. = 0; (20) 1 where pi , gi , etc., are clear of z^ . Then, wi being a primitive 1 m^^ root of unity such that, by changing J into the 7n^^ root of J 1 whose value is wiJ , ri becomes r-2 , 94 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS 1 w. — 1 c — 1 m — 1 HI — 1 C — 1 + '"l -*! ('?'1»2 + ^^^-^ + *^^^' (21) The coefficients of the several poMers of J in 97 (J ) cannot Le 1 all zero ; for, if they were, we should have, from (21), w (t'^i J ) = ^■ This means that r-i is a root of the equation X\ = 0. But in like manner all the terms in (14) would be roots of that equation, and J^i would be identical with X; which, by Cor. 3, is impossible. 1 J. Since the coefficients of the different powers of J in ^ (J are 1 not all zero, the equation (20) gives us, by §5, a)J =^1,0) beini; 1 an m}^ root of unity, and ^1 involving only surds in

^^^2 > etc., we reach a term Xg into which no surds enter that are not roots of unity, the vie . . . . I roots of the equation Xg = being unequal particular cognate forms of R. Should Xg modified according to §21, not be rational, its form, by Prop. IV., putting d for 7nc .... I, is '^e=Xd—{p^Oi+ -\-pmOm)xf^-'^ + {qiCi+ .... +5'™C^)x'^-2-f etc. ; where, one of the roots occurring in Xg being the primitive n^^ root of unity coi , the coefficients pi , qi , etc., are clear of Wi ; and Ci is the sum of the cycle of primitive n^^ roots of unity (8) containing fi I s or terms ; and, the cycle (9) containing all the primitive wth roots of unity, the change of coi into Wi causes (7i to become C-> , and C2 to become C3 , and so on. Cm becoming Ci . As was explained at the close of §20, the cycle (8) may be reduced to a single term, which is then identical with Ci . It will also not be forgotten that the roots of \inity such as the 7i* here sj)oken of are, according to §1, subject to the condition that the numbers such as n are prime. When Ci in Xg is changed successively into Ci , C2 , etc., let Xg become ^t , -^e ) -^e , • • • • ) ^e (22) 96 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS If Xf_ 4. 1 1)6 the continued jiroduct of the terras in (22), the dm roots of the equation Xe -|- 1 = can be shown to be iinequal particular <;• )gnate forms of R. For, no two terms in (22) as X^, and X^ are identical ; because, if they were, X^ would i-emain unaltered bj the a a change of wi into wi ; which, by Prop. IV., because (t»i is not a t^erm in the cycle (8), is impossible. It follows that no two of the equations Xg = 0, Xe = 0, etc., have a root in common. For, if the equations A'e = 0, and X^ = had a root in common, since Xg and Xg are not identical, Xg would have a lower measure involving only surds found in Xp , because the surds in Xg are the same with those in Xg . Let (f (x) be this lower measure of Xg , and let ri be a root of the equa- tion f (^) = ^- Then, by Cor. Prop. II., all the d roots of the equation Xg = ax-e roots of the equation ^ (x) = ; which is impossible. In the same way it can be proved that no equation in the series Xg = 0, Xg = 0, etc., has equal roots. Since no one of these equations has equal roots, and no two of them have a root in <.ommon, tlie dm roots of the equation Xg + 1 ^ are unequal | ar- ticular cognate forms of R. Also X^ + i. modified according to §21, is clear of the primitive ?^*^ roots of unity. Should Xg + 1 not be rational, we can deal with it as we did with Xg . Going on in this way, we ultimately reach a rationed exjjression X^ such that the dm . . . . g roots of the equation X^ = are unequal particular c'gnate forms of JR. This equation must be identical with the equa- tion F (x) ^ of which ri is a root. For, by Prop. III., the equation F (x) =0 has for its roots the unequal particular cognate forms of R. Therefore, because the roots of the equation Xj := are all unequal and are at the same time particular cognate forms of R, X^ must be either a lower measure of F (x) or identical with F (x). But F (x), V>eing ii-reducible, has no lower measure. Therefore Xz is identical with F (x). Therefore, the equation F (x) ^ being the X^^ degree, X = mc .... Im . . . . g. Hence X is a multiple of m. This is the 1 result arrived at when ri involves a surd of the highest rank J not a root of unity. Should Vi involve no surds except i-oots (see §1) of unity, we should then have set out from Xg regarded as identical with X — r\ . The result woidd have been X = m . . . . g. Therefore X is a multiple of m ; and, because m is here the number of cycles of s terms each, that make up the series of the 2Jrimiti\e n^^ roots of unity, tiis = n — 1. Therefore iV is a multiple of a measure of n — 1. §29. Cor. Let X be a prime number. Then, if ri involve a surd 1 ■of the highest rank J not a root (see §1) of unity, X = m ; for, OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 97 the series of integers vi, c, etc., of which iV" is the continued product, is reduced to its fii'st term. If ri involve only surds that are roots of unity, n — 1 is a multiple of iV ; ior 2^ = m . . . . g ; therefore, because iV is prime, it is equal to m ; but ms = n — 1 ; therefore The Solvable Irreducible Equation of the m^'^ Degree, m Prime. §30. The priLciples that have been established may be illustrated by an examination of the solvable irreducible rational equation of the ^th (Jegree F (x) = 0, m being prime. Two cases may be distinguished, though it will be found that the roots can in the two cases be brought under a common form ; the one case being that in which the simplified root ri is, and the other that in which it is not, a rational function of roots of unity, that is, according to §1, of rooth of unity having the denominators of their indices prime numbers. The equation F(^x) = may be said to be in the former case of the first class, and in the latter ■of the second class. The Equation F (x) = of the First Class. §31. In this case, by Cor. Prop. YL, r^ being modified according to §21, if one of the roots involved in ri be the primitive n^^ root of unity wi , « — 1 is a multiple of m. Also the expression written Xf in Prop. YI. is reduced to x — ^i , so that n = piCi + P2C2 + + PmCm . The m roots of the equation F (x) = being ri , r^ , etc , we must shave n = Pi C\ 4- P2O2 -^ + PmOm , r2 = PmCi + 2hG2 + + 2'>m-lCm , i ^^^^ rm= V% Oi + psC2 + 4- IhCm . For, by Prop. II., because ri is a root of the equation F (x) = 0, all the expressions on the right of the equations (23) are roots of that ■equation. And no two of these expressions are equal to one another. For, take the first two. If these were equal, we should have {Pm — Pi) Ci-\- {201 — P2 ) Ci + etc. = . Therefore, by §13, each of the terms pm — P\ , f\ — f'l , etc., is zero. This makes !P\ 1 P2 i etc., all equal to one another. Therefore ri = — pi ; so that the primitive w*^ root of unity is eliminated from ri ; which, by .§21, is impossible. Hence the values of the m roots of the equation F (x) = are those given in (23). 98 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS / §32. Let ri be one of the pai'ticular cognate forms of the generic exin-ession B under which the simplified exi)ression ri falls. Then, because, by Prop. II., all the particular cognate forms of H are roots of the equation F (x) = 0, rj is equal to one of the m terms ri , r2 , etc., say to r, . I will now show that the changes of the surds involved that cause ri to become ri , whose value is r^ , cause r2 to receive the value Vn + i , and r^ to receive the value r^ ^ -j , and so on. This may appear obvious on the face of the equations (23) ; but, to jjrevent misunderstanding, the steps of the deduction are given. Any changes made in ri must transform Ci into Cg , one of the m terms Ci , C2 , etc. In passing from ri to ri , while Ci becomes Cg , let r, / / / become ro , and 2h become pi , and p2 become po , and so on. The change that causes Ci to become Cg transforms C'2 into C'^ + 1 , and C3 into Cs + 2 , and so on. Therefore, it being understood that pm + 1 ) Cm + 1 ) etc., are the same as pi , C\ , etc., respectively, n = piGs + PiCs + 1 + etc., and r-i = pmCs-\- piCg + 1 + etc. j which may be otherwise written ' ' ' \ n = Pm + 2-,0i + p,n + 3 - J C'2 + etc., I r2=Pm + i — sCi -\- pm + i — sC-i, + etc, ' Therefore, form (24) and (23), ' / Gi{l)m + 2 — z—Pm+2 — z) + Ci {pm + Z-t— Pm + Z-s) + etc. = 0. Therefore, by §13, ^,„ + 2 _ s = jo^ + 2 - z , ;Jm + 3 _ « = it?m + 3 - *, etc. Hence the second of the equations (24) becomes r-i = Pm + i-xCi -\- p,n + o-zC2-\- etc. = r2 + 1. Thus r-2, is transformed into r^ + \ . In like manner rs receives the value r^ + 2 , and so on. §33. By Cor. Prop. VL, the primitive n^^ root of unity being one of those involved in. ri , n — 1 is a multiple of m. In like manner, if the primitive a"^ root of unity be involved in ri , a — 1 is a multiple of 7)1, and so on. Therefore, if t\, be the primitive m*^ root of unity, ti is distinct from all the roots involved in ri . OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 99 §34. From this it follows that, if tlie circle of roots ri , r^ , . . . . , Tm y be arranged, beginning with Tc , in the order Tc , Vg + i, ?'c + 2 > etc., and again, beginning with Vg , in the order ?'«,»'« + 1 , r, + 2 , etc., and if, tf being one of the primitive m*^ roots of unity, re + T-c + 1 «i + re + 2 «i + etc. = r, + r^ + i i!i + r, + 2 «;i;*+etc.(25) re = Ts . It is understood that in the series r^ , r,. ^ 1 , etc., when r„, is reached, the next in order is ri , so that Vm. + 1 is the same as ri , and so on. In like manner r^ ^ 1 is the same as ri , and so on. Since ri , r2 , etc., do not involve the primitive m^^ root of unity h , we can, by §12, substitute for ti in (25) successively the different primitive ^th roots of unity. Let this be done. Then, by addition, mrc — (ri + 7*2 + etc.)^ rnvg — (ri + »*2 + etc.). Therefore r^ =r4 . §35. Proposition VII. Putting ^1 = n + i5ir2 -h t^rs + -^ 2 4 -^2 = n -i- t^-i + t^rz-\- + ^, + K 2 (m — 1) -1 -2 n + ^1 ^2 + t^ rs + the terms, • • • • + h^m , '^m — 1 , ■ (26) Jl, A.2, A3, .... , Jm-l, (27) are the roots of a rational irreducible equation of the (m — 1)*^ degree ^ (x) =: 0, which may be said to be auxilianj to the equation F {x) = 0. For, let A be the generic expression of which Ai is a particular cognate form ; and let A' denote any one indifferently of the m — 1 particular cognate forms of A in (27). Because, by §33, the primitive m*^ root of unity does not enter into ri , r2 , etc., no changes made in ri , r2 , etc., affect ti . Also, by §32, if ri becomes r^ , r2 becomes **« + 1 7 ''3 becomes r^ + 2 , and so on. Therefore the expression (r, + -f etc.)™ ■ ' ■ ii{ri -h hr-i + etc.) = )\ -f t[ r-z -f etc., s being a whole numbei'. This may be written Tm + \-i -\- Tm + 'i-s h + etc. = Ti -f ti r2 -\- etc. (28) Therefore, by §34,r„i + i_s = ri . This means, since all the m terms- »'i > ^2 > etc., are unequal, that s = . Hence (28) becomes n + r2 h -f etc. = ri -f r-z ti + etc. Therefore »'2 + *'3 ^1 + etc. ^ r2 ti~ "" -{- rs ti~"' + etc. = ra + i-{- ra + -2ti + etc. Therefore, by §35, ^2 ^ r^ + i . Therefore, because all the m terms ri , r-2 , etc., are unequal, a = 1 ; which, because h and ti were supposed to be distinct primitive m^^ roots of unity, is impossible. Therefore no two of the terms in (27) are equal to one another. And it has been proved that there is no particular cognate form of J which is not equal to a term in (27). Therefore the terms in (27) are the unequal particular cognate forms of J. Therefore, by Prop. III., they are the roots of a rational irreducible equation. §36, Proposition YIII. The roots of the equation

^'2 , etc., are not rational. We may take the primitive nP^ root of unity wi to be present in these coefficients. But wi occurs in ri , r-j , etc., and therefore also in A^ , only in the expressions Ci , C2 , etc. Therefore Ai ^ di Ci -\- .... -j- dm Cm ', where d\ , etc., are clear of (x)i . The coefficients di , d2 , etc., cannot all be equal ; for this would make A^ = — di ; which, by §21, is impossible. Hence m unequal OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 101 values of the generic expression J are obtained by changing Ci snc- oessively into Oy , C2 , etc., namely, ill C'l + ckC-z + .... + d,n C,„ , d-mPi -\- d\ C2 -\- ■ ■ ■ ■ + dm —I C),i , d2 Ci + c/3 C2 + . . . . + (h On, . To show that these expressions are all unequal, take the first two. If these were equal, we should have (dnv - ih ) Ci + {di - d.2 ) C2 + etc. = . Therefore, by §13, d„i — di = , di — di = , and so on ; which, because di , d^ , etc., are not all equal to one another, is impossible. Since then J has at least 7^^ unequal particular cognate furms, Ji is, by Prop. III., the root of a rational irreducible equation of a degree not lower than the m*^ ; which, by Prop. VII., is impossible. Therefore k\ , k-i ., etc., are rational. Hence each of the expi'essions in (27) is a rational function of ^i . §37. Cor. Any expression of the type ^i + ki ty + ^'3 'i + etc., which is such that all the unequal particular cognate forms of the generic expression under which it falls are obtained by substituting for t\ successively the different primitive vi^^ I'oots of unity, while ki , kii , etc., remain unaltered, is a rational function of ti . For, in the Proposition, Ai or k\ -\- k-i ti + etc. was shown to be a i-ational function of t\ , the conclusion being based on the circumstance that Ji satisfies the condition specified. §38. Proposition IX. If g be the sum of the roots of the equation ■F{x) = 0, \ 2 _3_ r2 = ~{g + J, + ai J^ -t- oi Jj + + eiJ^'" +^iJ/" ); (29) For, z being one of the whole numbers, 1, 2, .... , m — 1, put p, = (n + t\ 1-2 + tl'rz + etc.) (ri + h^-^ i\ n + etc.)— . (30) Multiply the first of its factors by t\' and the second by t\ . Then Pz = (»'2 + tin -j- tin + etc.) {vi + «i ra + t[ r^ + etc.)-^. (31) Hence pz does not alter its value when we change vi into r-z , ?'2 into Tz , and so on. In like manner it does not alter its value when we 102 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OP EQUATIONS change n into ?■„ , To into Ta + i, and so on. Therefore, by §33, pz is not changed by any alterations that may be made in ri , ^2 , etc., while ti remains unaltered. Consequently, if p^ be a particular cognate form of P, all the unequal particular cognate forms of P are obtained by substituting for t^ successively in p^ the different primi- tive 711^^ roots of unity, while ?'i , ?-2 , etc., remain unaltered. There- fore, by Cor., Prop. VIII., p^ is a rational function of h . When z= 2, let pz = «! ; when z = S, let 2h = &i , and so on. Then, from 1 2 1 _3_ (26) and (30), J^"" = «i ^^ ' ^3'" = ^1 "^/" ^"'^ ^'^ ^^- ^^*' ^''^™ (27), since g is the sum of the roots of the equation F (x) = , J- -L JL *•! =— (^ + ^1 + ^2 +••••+ -:J,, _ 1 ). 2 13 1 By putting ai A for A , &i J for J and so on, this becomes (29). Because a^ , bi , etc., are rational functions of ^i , while Ji , the root of a rational irreducible equation of thf (m — 1)'^'^ degree, is also a rational function of ti , the coefficients «i , 61 , etc., involve no surd the prime number m be odd, the A 1 m + : that is not subordinate to J §39. Proposition X. If expressions 1 1 1 A A , A . 1 "m — 1 ' 2 (32) are the roots of a rational equation of the I j degree. By §32, when ri , is charged into Vg , r^ becomes r^ + 1 , r^ becomes r^ ^ 2 , ai^d so on. Hence the terms rir^ , r^Vz , .... r^ri , form a cycle, the sum of the terms in which may be denoted by the symbol S2 . In like manner the sum of the terms in the cycle r^ r^ , ^2 r4 , .... , r^ r2 , may be written 2.3 . And so on. In harmony with this notation, the sura of the m terms ri , ^2 , etc., may be written 2i . Now ri can only be changed into one of the terms rj , r2 , etc. ; and we have seen that, when it becomes 7\ , r^ becomes ? / + 1 , and so on. Such changes leave the cycle ri r2 , r^, rz , etc., as a whole unaltered. OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH ArPLICATIONS. 103 Therefore, by Prop. III., S2 is the root of a simple equation, or has a rational value. In like manner each of the expressions 2i , S2 5 S3 , . . . . , 'Sw , (33) has a rational value. From (26), by actual multiplication, 1 1 K'' ^J-i = 2i + (2^) ^1 + (-^^ ^' + ^*"- But S2 , S3 , etc., are respectively identical with 2,^5 S,«_i , etc. Therefore 1 1 ^r KH-x = 2' + (^•^) {h + h') + {l}^){tl + ir')+etc.(34) Hence, since the terms in (33) are all rational, and since the terms in 1 1 (32) are respectively what A A becomes by changing t\ succes- sively into the — — terms t\ , t\ , etc., the terms in (32) are the (m — 1\*^ — - — I degree. §40. For the solution of the equation aj" — 1 ^ , n being a prime number such that m is a prime measure oi n — 1 , it is necessary to obtain the solution of the equation of the m'^ degree which has for one of its roots the sum of the .terms in a cycle of primitive ^th roots of unity. This latter equation will be referred to as the reducing Gaussian equation of the vi^^ degree to the equation .x'^ — 1 = . §41. Proposition XI. When the equation F {x) = is the re- ducing Gaussian (see §40) of the m^^ degree to the equation x" — 1 = 0, each of the — - — expressions in (32) is equal to n. Let the sum of the primitive w*^ roots of unity forming the cycle (8), which sum has in preceding sections been indicated by the symbol G\ , be the root r\ of the equation F (x) = . This implies, since s is the number of the terms in (8), that vis ^ n — 1 . Let us reason first on the assumption that the cycle (8) is made up of pairs of reciprocal roots wi and wi~ , and so on. Then, because the cycle consists of — pairs of reciprocal roots, C\ or r\ is the sum of 104 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS s^ terms, each an n*^ root of unity. Among these unity occurs s times. Let u)\ occur hi times ; and let wi the second term in (8), occur h' times. iSince a»i may be made the first term in the cycle (8), it must, under the new arraugement, present itself in the value of Ti , precisely where wi previously appeared. That is to say, h' ^ h\ . In like manner each of the terms in (8) occurs exactly hi times in the expression for n . The cycle (9) being that which contains all the primitive n^^ roots of unity, let us, adhering to the notation of previous sections, suppose that, when wi is changed inta ii)\ , G\ or ri becomes C-z or r2 , C2 or r-i becomes C3 or Vz , and so on. On the same grounds on which every term in (8) occui-s the same 2 number of times in the value of ri , each term in the cycle of terms whose sum is C^ occurs the same number of times ; and so on. Therefore ri = s + hi Ci + h2 C2 + .... + h,„Cm • n = s -\- A,„(7i -\- hi d -\- .... + hm-l Cm , rm = s -\- hi Ci -\- hs Co + . . . ■ + hi Cm . Therefore, keeping in view (11), -1 = ms ^ {hi -\- h2 -\- . . . . -\- hm)- But s^ — s is the number of the terms in the value of r^ which are primitive n* roots of unity. And this must be equal to s {hi -\- .... + hyi). Therefore Ai + A2 + • . • . + hm = s — I . • . I\ = ms -{- 1 — s = n — s. Again, because ri is made up of pairs of reciprocal roots, and because therefore unity does not occur among the s- terms of which ri r2is the sum, ri 7-2 = X-'i Ci + A'2 C2 + • • • • + ^m C'm , T-2 ^3 = km C\ -\- kxCi -\- .... + ^m — 1 Gin > "M } I'm ''1 = ^'2 C\ 4- ^'.3 ^2 +••••+ ^'1 Cr, where ki , k^ , etc., ai-e whole numbers whose sum is s. Therefore 2*2 = — s. In like manner each of the terms in (33) except the first is equal to — s . Therefore (34) becomes ] 1 J J = {n — s) — s (ti + etc., we have h = qi -\- q2 Ci -\- qs C2 -i- .... + qm Gm - 1 ; where g-i , q2 , etc., are known rational quantities. But, by §13, the rational coefficients qi — k^ , q^ , etc., are all equal to one another. Therefore k\ = qi — 5-2 . In like manner k-i , k-i , etc., are known. Therefore, from (36), di , A2 , etc., are known. Therefore, from (35), ri is known. §44. Proposition XIII. The law established in Prop. X falls under the following more general law. The m — 1 expressions in each of the groups r (37) and so on, are the roots of a rational equation of the (m — 1)**^ degree. 1 1 1 1 1 1 -^ (< m ^7 A '^ ^m-2' •• A '^ ^r>) 2 1 2 1 2 1 (< a"^ K" A~^ ^«t-4' •• A "* <•) 8 1 3 1 3 1 (< ^r m ^:-) OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 107 The m — 1 terms in the first of the groups (37) are the 2 terms in (32) each taken twice. Therefoi'e, by Prop. X., the law enunciated in the present Proposition is established so far as this groupe is concerned. The general pi-oof is as follows. By (30) in ni — z 1 §38, taken in connection with (26), p„i — z ^, ^= ^ _ • There- z 1 fore A J ^ = p„j _ 2 Ji . But, by §38, pm _ « is a rational function of ^i ; and, by Prop. YIII., Ji is a rational function of ti . z 1 Therefore A, A is a rational function of U . Also from the manner in which p-m — z is formed, when t\ in jd,„ _ 2 ^^i is changed z 1 sucessively into h h , . . . . , h , the expression A A _ is changed successively into the m — 1 terms of that one of the groups (37) whose first term is zl, A . Therefore the terms in that ^ ' i m — z group are the roots of a rational equation. §45. Cor. The law established in the Proposition may be brought under a yet wider generalization. The expression A, J., A A m \ ^2 ^3 •••• ^m-1 (38) is the root of a rational equation of the (m — 1)*^ degree, if a + 26 + 3c + .... + (?/i — \) s = Wm , W being a whole number. Por, by (30) in connection with (26), 1 2 1 1 ^., = p2 ^j J ^3 = Pz A , and so on. Therefore (38) has the value a + 2b + 3e + .... + {m — 1) * b c bo W (pipi ....} Aj^ "* , or (;?2it?3 ....) ^1 . This is a rational function of ti , and therefore the root of a rational equation of the (m — 1)'^ degree. 108 principles of the solution of equations The Equation F{x) = of the Second Class. §46. We now suppose that the simplified root r^ of the rational irreducible equation F (x) ^ of the m}^ degree, m prime, involves, when modified according to §21, a principal surd not a root of unity. It must not be forgotten that, when we thus speak of roots of unity, we mean, according to §1, roots which have prime numbers for the denominators of their indices. In this case conclusions can be estab- lished similar to those reached in the case that has been considered. The root r\ is still of the form (29). The equation F (x) = has still an auxiliary of the (m — 1)*^ degree, whose roots are the m*** powers of the expressions 1 2 3 m — 2 ?>i — 1 ^1 , «i ^1 , Oi ^1 , , ei ^1 , hi A^ , (39) though the auxiliary here is not necessarily irreducible. Also, sub. 1 1 stituting the expressions in (39) for A A , etc., in (37), the law of Proposition XIII. still holds, together with corollary in §45. §47. By Cor. Prop. VI., the denominator of the index of a surd of 1 the highest rank in r\ is m. Let A be such a surd. By §21, the 1 coefficients of the difierent powers of A in r\ cannot be all zero. We may take the coefficient of the first power to be distinct from zero 1 1 1 ki — — and to be — for, if it were — , we might substitute s for kiA , m m ' ^ 1 1 and so eliminate A from rj , introducing in its room the new surd 1 s "* with — for the coefficient of its first power. We may then put m 1 3 m— 2 m—1 n =~ {g + A^ + ai A^ + + ei j/'' + h A^ ); (40) 1 1 where g , a\ , etc., are clear of A . When A is changed succes- 1 sively into A , ti A , ti A , etc., let ri,r2, Tm, (41) OP THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 109 be respectively what r^ becomes, ti being a primitive m^^ root of unity. By Pro)). VI., the terms in (41) are the roots of the equation F (x) = 0. Taking r„ , any one of the particular cognate forms of 1 1 B, let J , «n , etc., be respectively what J , o-i , etc., become in pass- 1 ing fi'om ri to r„ ; and when A is changed successively into the different ?«* roots of the determinate base J„, let r^ become / // Tn, rn, r„, .... , rT~^^ • (42) By Prop. II., the terms in (42) are roots of the equation F (x) = ; and, by §23, they are all imequal. Therefore they ai'e identical, in some order, with the terms in (41). Also, the sum of the terms in (41) is g. Therefore g is rational. 5:^48. Proposition XIV. In ri , as expressed in (40), J is the only principal (see §2 ) surd. 1 Suppose, if possible, that there is in r\ a principal surd z distinct 1 1 from J . And first, let z be not a root of unity. (It will be kept in view that when, in such a case, we speak of roots of unity, the denominators of their indices are understood, according §1, to be prime 1 1 numbers.) When « is changed into s^ , one of the other c*'^ roots -of z\ , let rj , ai , etc., become respectively n , ai , etc. Then 1 2 m in mn , = g + J^ + «i J^ + etc (43) By Prop. II., Ti is equal to a term in (41), say to r^ . And, by §48, putting tn ~ 1 for ^J - "^ 1 2 m-Tn = 9 + tn-i ^^'^ + tl_i ai J^" + etc. (44) Therefore, 1 2 J^*" (1 - tn-i) + ^1™ Ki - «i «„ _i) + etc. = 0. (45) 110 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS ThLs equation involves no surds except those found in the simplified expression ri , together with the primitive m^^ root of unity. There- fore the expression on the left of (45) is in a simple state. Therefore, 1 by §8, the coefficients of the different powers of J are separately r r zero. Therefore ^„_i = 1, ai ^ ai , 6i = bi , and so on. But, as 1 was shown in Prop. V. , z being a principal surd not a root of unity 1 in the simplified expression ai , ai cannot be equal to ax unless z can be eliminated from ai without the introduction of any new surd. 1 In like manner bi cannot be equal to 6i unless z can be eliminated from bi . And so on. Therefore, because ai = ai , and 6i = bi , 1 and so on, z admits of being eliminated from ?-i without the intro- duction of any new surd, which, by §21, is impossilile. Next, let z^ be a root (see §1) of unity, which may be otherwise written 0i Let the difierent pi'imitive c*^ roots of unity be Oi , 6^ , etc. ; and, when 0\ is changed successively into 6i , 0^, , etc., let ?'i become suc- cessively ri , Ti, etc. Suppose it possible that the c — 1 terms X ''i > ^'i > etc., are all equal. Since z is a principal surd in rj , we (J \ f> 2 may put n = hO^ + k0^ -\- ....-{- I ; where h, k, etc., are clear of 0i . Therefore (c — 1) n = c^ — (h -{- k -{- etc.) Thus z may be eliminated from ri without the introduction of any new surd ; which by §21 is impossible. Since then the tern.s ri , ri , etc., are not all equal, let ri and ri be unequal. Then ri is equal to a term in (41) distinct from ri , say to ?•„. Expressing mri and m?-„ as in (43) and (44), we deduce (45) ; which, as above, is imjwssible. 1 §49. Proposition XV. Taking ri,^^, J , etc., as in §47, an 1 c equation t A = p J (46) OF THE HIGHER DEGHEliS, WITH APPLICATIONS. Ill can be formed ; where t is an m^^ root of unity, and c is a whole number less than m but not zero, and p involves only surds subordi- 1 1 - m in nate (see §3) to J or J By §47, one of the terms in (42) is equal to ri . For our argument it is immaterial which be selected. Let r„ = ri . Therefoi'e m — 1 m — 2 1 {K J, + e.„ -i„ +.... + J, ) m — 1 in — 2 _1_ - (A, j7^+ ., j"'"^^ . . . . + j;^ ) = . (47) 1 The coefficients of the difterent powers of J here are not all zero, for the coefficient of the first power is unity. Therefore by §5, an 1 equation tA = h subsists, t being an 7n^^ root of unity, and ^i in- 1 volving only surds exclusive of A that occur in (47). By Prop. 1 XIV., J is a surd of a higher rank (see §3) than any surd in (47) except J . Therefore we may put 1 2 m — 1 l^= d + di J^ + c/.j J^ +....+ d„, _. 1 J^ ; 1 where d, di , etc., involve only surds lower in rank than J^ . Then 1 J„= ^7 = (c^ + c/i J^"* + etc.)'- 1 2 ^ d -\- d\ J + d-i J + etc.; 1 I I — where d , di, etc., involve only surds lower in rank than J . By 1 §8, since J is a surd in the simplified expressions ri , the coefficients d — J„ , c?i , etc., in the equatiuu 8 112 PKINCIPI.KS oF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS 1 {d - Jn) + di A^ + d^ J^ + etc. = (48) are separately zero. Therefore {d -\- di A + etc.)'" = d . And, tx being a primitive m^^^ root of unity, {d + di h ^"' + etc.)'" = d -^ d ti A^'" + etc. = d. Therefore, 1 1 _2_ (d + di ti Jj"' + etc.) = ti {d + di J^"' + d, J^ + etc.), ti being one of the m^^ roots of unity. In the same way in which 1 the coefficients of the different powers of J in (48) ai-e sejmrately zero, eacli of the expressions d (1 — ti ), d\ {ti — h), etc., must be a zero. But not more than one of the m — 1 factoz'S, t\ — ^i , 2 a, h — ^1 J etc., call be zero. Therefore not rnoie than one of the 7)1 — 1 terms di , d-i , etc., is distinct from zero. Suppose if possible 1 that all these terms are zero. Then t A = d. Therefore the n _1_ different powers of A can be expressed in terms of the surds in- 1 2 volved in d and of the m^^^ root of unity. Substitute for A , A etc., in (47), their values thus obtained. Then (47) becomes w- l _i_ Q-{rn\"' +..••+ V) = 0^ (49) where Q involves no surds, distinct from the prindtive ?«*^ root 1 of unity, that are not lower in rank than A^ ; which, because _i_ the coefficient of the first power of A^ in (49) is not zero, is, by §8, impossible. Hence there must be one, while at the same there can be only one of the m — I terms, c/j , d-2 , etc., distinct from zero. Let OF Tin: H Hi HER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 1 1 ."{ Jc he the term that is not zero. Then tl — t1 = 0. Therefoio 1 t^ is not zero. Therefore d = 0. Tlierefore, putting p for d,; , \ c , m m n •' 1 §50. Cor. By the proj^osition, values of the different powers of 1 J can be obtained as follows ; n 1 ^_ 2 « 3 z tJ = 1) ^, ,t^-i = q ^, ,t^ ^ = k J^ , etc.; (50 where p, q, etc., involve only surds that occur in Ji or J„ ; and c, *<, z, etc., are whole number.s in the series 1, 2, m — 1. No two f)f the numbers c, s, etc., can be the same ; for they are the [)roducts, with multiples of the prime number m left out, of the terms in the series 1,2, . . . . , m — 1, by the whole number c which is less than m. Therefore the series c, s, a, etc., is the series I, 2, . . . . , w — 1, in a certain oi'der. §51. Proposition XVI. If r,j be one of the particular cognate forms of R, the expressions 1 2 m — 2 m— 1 «j",<2a„j"^, .... ,/,— V„ J '^ ,P—^h„ J^, (51) are severally equal, in some order, to those in (39), t being one of the m^^ roots of unity. By §47, one of the terms in (42) is equal to ?■] . For our argument it is immaterial which be chosen. Let Vn = ri . By Oor. Pro]). XV., the equations (50) subsist. Substitute in (47) the values of the 1 different powers of A so obtained. Then c s {t-^pA^ -f «- - qc'n ^/" + etc.) 1 2 - (j;" + «i j/" + etc.) = 0. (52) c s m m ...... By Cor. Proji. XV., the series J , J , etc., is ulentieal, m some 1 2 1 - .■II • - '"■ , ■'"■ , 4 1 1 r. I • <■'"'• order, with tlie series J. , J , etc. Also, by v:i>, since J^ is a 114 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLVTION OF EQUATIONS 1 surd occurring in the simplified expression ry , and since besides J there are in (52) no surds, distinct from the primitive tn}^ root of unity, that are not lower in rank than A , if the equation (52) 1 were arranged according to the powers of J^ lower than the m**^, 1 the coefficients of the different powers of J would be separately 1 zero. Hence J is equal to that one of the expressions, c s t- 1 p A^ , t- 2 qan A^ , etc. (53) in which A is a factor. In like manner a\ A is equal to that one 2 of the expressions (53) in which A is a factor. And so on. There 1 2 fore the terms J , «i J , etc., forming the series (39), are sever- ally equal, in some order, to the terms in (53), which are those forming the series (51.) §52. Proposition XVII. The equation F {x) =■ ^ has a rational auxiliary (Compare Prop. VII.) equation w (a;) ^ 0, whose roots are the m^"^ powers of the terms in (39). Let the unequal particular cognate forms of the generic expression A under which the simplified expression Ji falls be Ji , ^2 ,...., -Ic . (54) By Prop. XVI., there is a value t of the m^^^ root of unity for which the expressions 1 2 TO — 2 m — 1 t a;, fi a, aJ, .... , <— 2 ., j/", ^—1 h, A^ (55) are severally equal, in some order, to those in (39). Therefore A^ is equal to one of the terms J, , ^M Ji ,. . . .,ei Ji , //I Ji . (56) OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 115 In like manner each of the terms in (54) is eqnal to a term in (56). And, because the terms in (54) are unequal, they are severally equal to different terms in (56). By Prop. III., the tei'ms in (54) are the roots of a rational irreducible equation, say ^'i [x) = 0, Rejecting from the series (56) the roots of the equation i (x) = 0, therefore «« = «.v. §55. Proposition XIX. Let the terms in (39) be written respectively 1 j_ _i_ _i_ The symbols J, , <^^ , <\ , etc., are employed instead of ^j , -^^t ^j , etc., because this latter notation might suggest, what is not necessarily true, that the terms in (56) are all of them particular cognate forms of the generic expression under whicli Ji falls. Then (compare Prop. XIII.) the m — I expressions in each of the groups 1 ji 1 1 m m 1 1 m . m Tn. in in in ^ iii, "^ (J, ,5 2 1 m m — 2 ' 2 til m TO _ 4 ' 3 7ft — e 1 1 '^ 1 ^1 ') TO — 1 I ' 2 _]_ TO— 1 2 " I (59) (^; » m TO HI _ S ' 2 m — ( 3 OT — ,) and so on, are the roots of a rational equation of the (m — 1)*^ degree. m — 1 Also (compare Prop. X.) the first — - — terms in the first of the jvth groups (59) are the roots of a rational equation ot the I — 1 degree. In the enunciation of the proposition the remark is made that the series (54) is not necessarily identical with the series ^1 , ^2 , '^3 , • ■ • • > ^m— 1- The former consists of the unequal particular cognate forms of J ; the latter consists of the roots of the auxiliary equation

/ «, and si = j) — q y/ z ; vi, n, z, }■> and q being rational ; and the surd y/ s being irreducible. By Propositions XIII. and XIX., the terms in (66) are the roots of a quadratic. Therefore Ji A^ and Jg A^ are the roots of a quad- ratic. Suppose if possible that Ji J3 is the root of a quadratic. By i 3 Propositions IX. and XIX., J3 = ei A{ . Therefore ei Ji is the root of a quadratic. From this it follows (Prop. III.) that there are not more than two unequal terms in the series, el At , el A2, 63 ^3 , ei Ai. (69) But suppose if possible that el Ai = 62 A2 . Then, < being one of the fifth roots of unity, tei Ai =60 ^2 But, by Propositions IX. and 14 4 1 XIX., A2 = hi aJ . Therefore, tei jf = 62 hi aI Ai . There- OF THE HIGHER DEGREES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 123 fore, by §8, ei = 0. Therefore one of the roots of the auxiliary- biquadratic is zero ; which because the auxiliary biquadratic js assumed to be irreducible, is impossible. Therefore ei Ji and e-z J2 are unequal. In the same way all the terms in (69) can be shown to be unequal ; which, because it has been jjroved that there are not more than two luiequal terms in (69), is impossible. Therefore Ai J3 is not the root of a quadratic equation. Therefore the product of two of the roots, Ai and J4 , of the auxiliary biquadratic is the root of a quad- ratic equation, while the product of a different pair, Ji and J3 , is not the root of a quadratic. But the only terms which the roots of an irreducible biquadratic can assume consistently with these conditions are those given in (68). §68. Proposition XXV. The surd y/ si can have its value ex- pressed in terras of ^/s and ^/z. By Pi'opositions XIII. and XIX, the terras of the first of the groups (67) are the roots of a biquadratic equation. Therefore their fifth powers aIa,, Al A,, (70) aIas A'I Ai are the roots of a biquadratic. From the values of Ji , A2 , As and Ai in (68), the values of the terms in (70) may be expressed as follows : y ('1) + (^4 + i^5 ^/ ^) v/ si + (^6 + ^7 v/ «) v/ s v/ si , aIAi= F- Fiy z-\- (Fo- Fs^ z) ^ si - (Fi - F,V z)^ s -(Fc-F,^z)^s^s,, aIA2= F- Fi^ z- {F2 - /s k/ -) s/ si + {F4, - F,^ z) ^ s - (F, - Fi s/^)ys^si, AlAi= F+ F,y z- (F^-h F^^ z) ^ s -{Fi + F,^z) ^ si + {F, + F-, y/z)s/s^s,,^ where F, F\ , etc., are rational. Let - (Ji J3 ) be the sum of the four expressions in (70). Then, because these expressions are the roots of a biquadratic, - ( Ji zJg ) or iF + iF-j ^/ s s/ Si , must be rational. Suppose if possible that v'si cannot have its value expressed in terms of v/ « and ^/ z. Then, because ^ s ,/ si is not rational, F^ = 0. By (68), this implies that n = 0. Let {A\As -f {Li + Lr, y/ z) y/ 61 + (/^6 + L; ^ z) s/ s ^ «i , 124 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS wliere L, L\ , etc., ai'e rational. Then, as above, Z7 := 0. Keeping in view that n = 0, this means that m^ q ^ 0. But q is not zero, for this would make \/ s := \/ si ; whicli, because we are reasoning on the hypothesis that y/ si cannot have its value expressed in terms of >/ s and y/ z, is impossible. Therefore m is zero. And it wa.s shown that n is zero. Therefore J^ = ^ s, and J3 = — ^8. Therefore Ji J3 = — -v/ {2>^ — q^ ^) ) which, because it has been proved that Ji J3 is not the root of a quadratic equation, is impossible. Hence \/ si cannot but be a rational function of ^Z s and ^Z z. §69. Proposition XXVI. The form of s is A (1 + e2 ) + h s/(l + e2 ), (72) h and e being rational, and 1 + e^ being the value of z. By Prop. XXV., y/ si= v-f c ^ s, v and c being rational functions of ^/ z. Therefore si = v^ + c' s -\- 'Ivc y/ s. By Prop. XXIV., x/ s is irreducible. Therefore vc = 0. But c is not zero, for this would make y/ si = v, and thus ^ Si would be the root of a quadratic equation. Therefore u = 0, and -y/ si = c v^ s = (ci -f C2 -s/ ») v/ s, ci and C2 being rational. Therefore ^ (ssi) = V ip''- r ^) = (ci + C2 ^/ s) (i^ + ? x/ z) = (ci f -\- c-i q z) -\- ^ z (ci q -\. c-iii) = F -^ Q ^ z. Here, since p^ — (f' z is rational, either /' = or ^ = 0. As the latter of these alternatives would make ^/ {^p^ — ■^s and Ax . That is to say, A\ is a rational function oi y/ s, y/ S\ and -^ z. But it was shown that \/ Si -^ s = he ^ z. Therefore A\ is a rational function of ^ s and ^Z s. We may therefore put A^ = K + A^' J, + K" J4 + K'" A^ J4 , 126 PRINCIPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS K, K', K" and K'" being rational. But the terms A\ , Ao , A^ , A-i circulate with J^ , J2 , A^ , J3 . Therefore ^2 = A' + A^' Jo 4. K" J3 + K'" Jo J3 , Ai = K + K' J4 + K" Ji + K'" Ji J4 , ^3 = A^ + K' J3 + K" J2 + K"' Jo Js , These are Abel's values. §72. Keeping in view the values of A\ , A-i , etc., in (G7), and also that % ■= \ -^ 6' ., and s = As + /i ^/ 2:, any rational values that may be assigned to m, n, e, h, K, K', K" and K'" make r\ , as presented in (74), the root of an equation of the fifth degree. For, any rational values of m, n, etc., make the values of *S'i , »S'o , etc., in ^62, rational. §73. It may be noted that, not only is the expression for Vi in (74) the root of a quintic equation whose aiixiliaiy biquadratic is irre- ducible, but on the understanding that the surds y/ s and ^ z in Ji may be reducible, the expression for r\ in (74) contains the roots both of all equations of the fifth degree whose auxiliary l)iquadratics have their roots rational, and of all that have quadratic sub- auxiliaries. It is unecessary to offer proof of this. §74. The equation x^ — 10a;3 -f Sa;^ + lOa^ + 1 = is an example of a solvable quintic vvith its auxiliary biquadratic irre- ducible. One of its roots is 1 2 3 4 (o being a primitive fifth root of unity. It is obvious that this root satisfies all the conditions that have been jjoir.ted out in the preceding analysis as necessary. A root of an equation of the seventh degree of the same character is 1 2 3 4 5 fi u) being a primitive seventh root of unity. The general form under which these instances fall can readily be found. Take the cycle that contains all the j^rimitive {ni'Y^ roots of unity, 0,0^, 0^\ etc. (75) m being prime. The number of terms in the cycle is {m — 1)^. Let 0^, be the {m -f 1)'^ term in the cycle (75), O-z the {2m + 1)**^ term, and so on. Then the root of an equation of the ?/i'^ degree, including the instances above given, is [Read be/ore the Canadian Institute, March 3rd, 1883]. RESOLUTION SOLYABLE EQUATIONS OF THE FIFTH DEGREE, BY GEORGE PAXTON YOUNG, Toronto, Canada. CONTENTS. 1. Sketch of the method employeJ. General statement of the ciitei'ion of solvability of an equation of the fifth degree. §2-5. 2. Case in which ui u^ = U2 ws . The roots determinable in terins of the coefficients pi , p2 , etc., even while particular numerical values have not been assigned to the coefficients. Three verifying instances ; one, in which the auxiliary biquadratic is irreducible ; a second, in which there is a quadratic sub-auxiliary ; a third, in which the roots of the auxiliary biquadratic are all rational. §6-10. 3. Deduction, in the case in which ui u^ = ic-y us , of the equation p' = j where p' is a rational function of the coefficients jJi , p2 , «tc. Verifying instances. §11-13. 4. The trinomial quintic x^ + />4 « + Po = 0- Form which the criterion of solvability here takes. Example. §14-16. 5. When any relation is assumed between the six unknown quantitie.--, the roots of the quintic can be found in terms of pi , p-z , etc. §17. . 6. The general case. §18. §1. By means of the laws established in the paper entitled " Prin- ciples of the Solution of Equations of the Higher Degrees," which is concluded in the present issue of the Journal of Mathematics, a criterion of the solvability of equations of the fifth degree may be found, and the roots of solvable quintics obtained in terms of given numerical coefficients. In certain classes of cases, the roots can be determined in terms of coefficients to which particular numerical values have not been assigned, but which are only assumed to be so related as to make the equations solvable. 11 128 resolution of solvable equations Sketch of the Method Employed. §2. Let ri , ri , r% , ?"4 , rs , be the roots of the solvable irreducible equation of the fifth degree wanting the second term, F (x) = x^ + ^^2 «3 + p3 a;2 -\- Pi X -\- po = 0. (1) It was proved in the " Principles " that i ill n = h (^r + ^2 + ^I + ^J )' where Ji , J-z , J3 , /J4 are the roots of a biquadratic equation auxiliary to the equation F (x) = 0. It was also shown that the root can be expressed in the form n = h (4 + «i 4 -h ei4 + ^^1 4 )' (2) where ai , e\ , hi , involve only surds occurring in J"; and no surds occur in Ji exce|)t ^{hz -\- h x/ ^) and its subordinate y/ z ; z being equal to 1 + e- , and h and e being i-ational. As in the •' Pi-inciples," 1111 we may put 5ui , = J^ , 5u2 = J.f , 5ii3 = J3 , 5ui = J^ . Then n — Ml -f ii2 + W3 + W4 . (3) Let -s'l be the sum of the roots of the equation F (x) = 0, S2 the sum of their squares, and so on. Also let - ('^1 U3 ) = Wi U3 + Zio Ml -f Uz Ui + '2*-l ^*2 > - (Wi Mo ) = Ml ?(2 + it-I ICi + ■2<'3 «1 + Ui ?'3 , N-/ 2 2, 22, 22,22, 22 - (Ml Mj ?/4} = Ml ?t3 2«.4 -)- ?/2 ^i M3 + M3 M4 Uo + M4 M2 ^*1 J „, - (w5) = zti + ul + M3 + 4 ; }^ (4) S2 = 10 (mi M4 + M2 M3 ), ,S'3 =15 \-(ui W3 ) i , Si = 20 {l (ui U2 )} + y3. (^Sl) -f 60 ICi M2 ^t3 M4 , S, = 5 \l(ul}} + I (.So S3) + 50 {^(uiulul)}- ^ §3. It was proved in the " Princii^les " that ?ii ?t4 and M2 M3 are the I'oots of a quadratic equation. But 25 Ml iii = hi Ji , and 25 M2 M3 = ai ei Ai . Therefore, because «i , ci , Ai , involve no surds that are not sub- 1 ordinate to Jj^ , ^ s is the only surd that can appear in ui M4 and 2 U3 . Consequently we may put OF THE FIFTH DEGREE. 129 m Ui = g -\- a \ , ^t| W4 , w^ ui , are the roots of a biquadratic equation. And, by the same reasoning as that employed in the case of u^ u and xi^ u^ , the only surds that can appear in these expressions are s/(hz -\- h y/z), y/{hz — h v/a), and ^z. Let hz -\- h ^z = s, and hz — A v^ 2; = si . Then y/ s^ = I ) \/ s> and y/ s \/ Si = he ^ z. Hence the expressions u^ u^ , u^ui , u^ u^ , u'^U2 , may have their values exhibited in terms of v' 2 and either of the surds y/ s, y/ s\ . Put Ml M3 = A + C y/ Z ■\- (6 -\-

/ S, UiU2 = k -\- C y/ z -\-

3 , k = -^\{pz). (10) It will be convenient to retain the symbols g and k, whose values are given in (6) and (10). Again, because w^ u% = ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ we M2 W3 have, from (5) and (8), (9) 130 RESOLUTION OF SOLVABLE EQUATIONS ^z u^=^-^^^\k + c V z + {0 + 2 ; a" ^y (5); «*i ^2 M3 Ui = g2 — a-^ z. Therefore Pi= — 20A + 5^2 _^ 15^2 ;^. (12) Again, S,= 5 \l (til) \ + | (^'2 ^3 ) + 50 [i: {m uUl) \. And 2'(ui) = iB, S2 Ss= 6p2P3= 1200 gk, and ^2 2 2 '^ 2 2" («*i W3 Ui) = Ul Ui (m2 Ul -\- U3 Ui ) -\- U'l 2C3 (Mi M3 + Ui Ul ). Therefore S^ = 20B + 1000^^ — 200acz. But S^ - 5p2pz + 5;^5 = 'S'5 - lOOO^y?; + dp^ = 0. Therefore p^ = — AB + iOacs. (13) The values of JO4 and pi, in (12) and (13) make the quintic F(x) = x^ + Pi £c3 ^ p^x"- ^ (5^2 _^ 15„2 3 _ 20^1) X 4- (40ac2 — 4^) = 0. (14) §4. Assuming the coefficients pi , pz , etc., in (1), to be known, the coefficients in the equation F (x) = as exhibited in (14) involve six unknown quantities, namely, a, c, 0, w, e, h. The list does not fl5) OF THE FIFTH DEGREE. 131 include z, g,k; because z = 1 -{■ e^ ; and g and k are known by (6) and (10). To find the six unknown quantities we have six equations, which are here gathered together. p^= — 10A + V + 15«^ «. jD5 = — AB -\- 40ac2, B" = 1, B'" = 0, hz (02 + ^2 . + 20^) = A2 + c2 « - gr (5^2 _ 0,2 ^) /i (02 J^ f-^z + Wfz)= 'Ike — a{g^ — a? z). The first two of these equations are the equations (12) and (13). As to the third and fourth, it was proved in the " Principles " that the form of wi is m -\- n ^Z ^ -{■ \/ (^^ -\- h y/ z), m and n being rational. This is saying in other words that B"=^ 1 and B"'^Q. The last two of the equations (15) are the equations (9). §5. The criterion of solvability of the equation F (x) ^ may now be stated in a general way to be that the coefficients p^ , pz , etc., must be so related that rational quantities, a, c, 0, (p, e, h, exist satisfying the equations (15). "We also see what requires to be done in order to find the roots of the equation F (x) = in terms of the given coefficients. By (3), Tx is known when ui , U2 , W3 , W4 are known. But, B" and B" being respectively unity and zero, ul = B + B' ^ z -\- ^ s, ^''l = B + B' ^ z — ^ s, Therefore, to find ri we need to find B, B' , z and h ; which is equiva- lent to saying that we need to find the six unknown quantities a, c, 0, etc., without definite numerical values being assigned to p-i , pz ^ etc. This I proceed to show. u\ = B- - B' ^ z-{- ^ si, icz = B - - 5' v/ 2 — v/ «l . 132 RESOLUTION OF SOLVABLE EQUATIONS §7. By (5), because mi u^ = u^ U3 , a = 0. Thus, one of the six unknown quantities is determined, while we have still the six equations (15) to work with. It might be sufficient to say, that, from six equations five unknown rational quantities can be found. I will recur to this idea ; but in the meantime the following line of reasoning may be pursued. From (11), ^ = . Therefore equatioa (12) becomes gj}^ = - 20 (F _ c2 2) + 5^3 . (16) Also, because a = 0, equations (7) being kept in view, u^ = 1 1 g2 . 2 {k^ — c'z) {k + c^z)-g^ (k — cs/z) + 2{k-\-c^z) {B'— + B" + ^"Vs) Vs. . •. %2 = y^ j 2 (Z;2 _ c2 s) - ^3 } + 2chez (0^ _ ^2 ^) and ^y = c { 2 (A;2 _ c2 «) + ^3 I + 2Me (02 _ ^2 ^). .■.u\= \\k { 2 (A;2 _ c2 2) _ ^3 j ^ 2chez (6^ - | which may be written M = 5kcz — F, y (20) and iV" = 2 (k'^ + c2 2) — ^3 _ 4 ^c, I •which may be written ]V ^ F — 4: kc. J The two equations (19) give us 0|if2 _ ~ JV^2 _4e2 (^2 _c2 s)2| = e^2 I J/ _ 2e (/5;2 _ c^z) j ^ j iI/2 — « iV^2 — 4e2 (F _c2 2)2 1 = ey2 ^7; Therefore r" (^l) _0__ if - 2e (F - c2 2) OF THE FfFTH DEGREE. 133 Equating the value of rr^ — ; — ^^^r — obtained from (21) with {)■'■+■ (f^ z -\- '2tffz that derived from the last two of equations (15), 2kcz j Jf — 2e (A;2 — c2 3) 1 2 _^ i\r2 « + 2iVJ 3f — 2e {k"- —c'-z)] i^M — 2e {k- — c- z) [2 ^ ^■^z-\- 'INz j M — 2e (k- — o'- z) j ' ^^^^ The coefficients p^ , 7^3 , etc., in the equation F (x) = 0, being given, ff and k are known by (6) and (10). Therefore, by (16), c'^ z is known. Then (22) will be found to be a quadratic equation determinative of c. For, keeping in view the value of F in (20), (22) may be written ^.2 _j_ g2 2; — ^3 2kc^ z |4 (F -f c2 zf -f 7^2 j _ 8y^/>c _ 16^ (^2 _ c2 z) (ce) ] 4 (A;2 _ c2 zf — 16/t2 c2 2 _ P2 j c + 8y^c2 zF—^ [W — c^ z) F (ce) Because g, k, c^ z and F are known, this equation is of the form H {ce) = Kc + L, where H, K, L, are known. Therefore, since c^ e^ = c^ z — c^ , c2 (7/2 + A'2 ) ^ 2A'Zc + (7:2 _ 7f2 c2 s) = ; from which c is known. Therefore, since c^ z is know^n, ::: is known. Therefore e is known. Therefore, by (21), Q and

etc. This elimination has been performed, under the dii-ection of the author of the paper, by Mr. Warren Reid of Toronto, with the following result. Putting P, as in §7, for 2 {Jc^ -{- c^ z) — g^ , let A = — 2ytc2 zg^ j 8 (F + c^ s) — 3^3 | ^ B= f \ 16F c2 « + 4 (^2 + c2 zY — 5/ (/!;2 + c2 2) + / J, 2) = — 4 (F — c2 «) j — ^6 4. 3^3 (^2 4. c2 ^) - 2 (;fc2 _ ^^ ^f [ , A^= — ^kc^z[2,2kc^z{k'^—ch)—P |jOj/+8/l^(A;2-c2^)-4^^3 j] j^5^2+8>t(y!;2_c2«)— 4^•/ J [— 32^2c23+(7^J 4(^2+c23)_^3 J] + 64>;;c2 zP {k"^ — c2 2), 7) = - 16y5:c2 zg^ |4 (F + c^ z) -g^ ] 4. 4P (/J;2 _ c2 2) jj95 ^2 + 8A; (F - c2 2) — 4A;^3 j. Then, since 10*7 = — p2 , and 20^- = — ;j3 , and 20c2 z = Pig — ^g^ + 20F , OF THE FIFTH DEGREE. 137 the quantities A, B, D, Ai , Bx , Di , are known rational functions of p2 , pz , etc. And (^2 + 2)2 ) (^2 _ 2)2 c2 z) — {Bl + Z)2) (^2 _ 2)2 gZ «) + 4 f ^^ (52 + 2)2) _ ^^ ^^ (^2 + 2)2 I {yl5 (^2 _ 2)2 c2 2) _ Ax Bx (^2 _ 2)2 c2 «) [ = 0. (25) §12. To verify this I'esult, the Gaussian equation in §8 may be used. Here _ IP /IP + 112 X i9>^ 118 X 3 / 2^ 2° X 512 y 56 / 2* X 517 7? _ 11! / 11^ , 3^ X 72 X IP _ 9 X 35 X 11^ , 11^ \ 56 V 2* X 59 "^ 2* X 512 8 X 512 •" "512 / 9 X IF D = A,= 4 X 516 112 X 31/ ,,, . 7 X 27 X IP 3P X 1P\ -^I^(- 11' + 8 8--) 3 X 31 X IP 4 X 516 • 11« .,. . „,. IP 26 X -51^(19 + 31)=^,-^ IP IP X 109 A= 5n^(- 53+ 44 X 41 - 19 X 31) = -^^l IP /63 X IP 1P\ IP X 19 X 31 i).= - / 63 X IP _ 21l\ _ \ 2 X 56 "56^^ 4 X 512 V 2 X 56 56 / 8 X 51* IP X 26 "~ 517 Therefore m _L 7)2 9 ^ 11^' X 41 2 , ^2 IP X 11029 ^ + ^ = 8 K 530 ' ^^ + ^^ = 2*^ X 53.^ 9 X IP* X 89 ^2 _ 2)2 c2 s = — 26 X 535 ^2 ^2,._ 11^x40139 ^1 — i^i c s — 210 X 53' 138 RESOLUTION OF SOLVABLE EQUATIONS By the substitution of these values, equation (25) becomes 1156 y 34 926 5136 1 62653332 - 2886277 x 13600357 \ = 1156 V 3* ^,, ^,,, \ 39254397600889 - 39254397600889 I = 0. 226 X 5136 { J §13. As an additional verification, the equation a;5 -)_ lOx^ — 80a;2 + 145x — 480 = may be taken. Here, by §9, g = - I, k = 4, k'^ - c'^ z = 7, k-^ -^ c^ z = 25. Therefore ^ = 23 X 32 X 7 X 29, 5 = — 2 X 5 X 17 X 29, i) = 23 X 3 X 7 X 29, A^= — 29 X 3* X,141, ^1 = 2* X 3 X 17 X 2393, D^= — 27 X 32 X 13 X 19. B'-i- Z)2 = 22 X 292 X 14281, ^2_^ i)2 ^ 28 X 32 X 5 X 338016989, ^2_ i)2 c2 ^ ^ 0, ^2_ Z)2 c2 3 = 214 X 36 X 5 X 7 X 172 X 277. By the substitution of these values, equation (25) becomes 2" X 3« X 6 X 7 X 17' X 29* j 277 x 1428P + 5' X 7 X 338016989 — 2' x 3 x 141 x 2393 x 14281 J = 0. 7'he Trinomial Quintic x^ -\- p^x -\- p;, =: 0. §14. In this case, by (6) and (10), 9 = 0, and ^ = 0. Therefore, by (11), A ^ - ^^ ^^' ~ ^' ^\ Therefore, by (12), 20he (^2 _ ^2 ^) p^ = 5^ — ' -f 15a2 z. (26) Also, by §3, ^ - -4: '>—o?z'^c+2hecz{e-(p'^)Y Therefore, by (13), ' p,= - ^J^[0^ - ^'^ z) + Uacz. (27) OF THE FIFTH DEGREE. 139 Hence the quintic becomes F{x) = x' -\-\ 5^ ^-— ^ + 15a2 z\x + j _ ^ {pi-^-^z) ^ Uacz 1=0. (28). The criterion of solvability of a trinomial quintic of the kind under consideration is therefore that the coefficients p^ and p^ be related in the manner indicated in the form (28) ; while at the same time the last four of the equations (15), modified by putting g = k = 0, subsist between the rational quantities a, c, e, h, 0, f. From these data, the three following equations may be deduced, v being put for Sev^ — izv" + z {?> ^ ie) V — z^ = Q, ^ % + ^J^= 350., a ac iv (29) {ze + 4sv — 8v-')=(— 3z + |^,) {s + 4v (e — 1) + Sv^]. i The first of these equations is obtained from a comparison of the two equations (9), the second is obtained by putting ^^^ and p^ respectively equal to the values they have in (28) ; and the third is obtained by putting j9^ equal to the coefficient of the first power of x in (28). §15. If any rational values of e and v can be found satisfying the first of equations (29), let such values be taken. Then, from the second and third of (29), a- and ac can be found. Therefore a and c are known. Therefore, by (21), ^ and ^ are known. Therefore, by (9), h is known. In this way all the elements for the solution of the quintic are obtained, §16. For example, the three equations (29) are satisfied by the values.. 1 5 „ 25 4 , , 45 X 253 a = 5, . •. = 0, (p = — , A 75' 16 When these values are substituted in (28), the quintic becomes a,5 + ^ 4. 3750 _ 0. 140 RESOLUTION OF SOLVABLE EQUATIONS Then the values of u^, u^, u^, w^, obtained from the expression for 5 ■ Ui, in §3, are Ui 1*2 =^{-'V(4)-;^^/(4-7^)}. W3 = 4^{-'+7(4)+;^v/(4-74)} Hence, rj = w^ + m^ + Wj + ^t, = — 1.52887 — 2.25035 -f 2.48413 — 3.65639 = — 4.95148. When any Relation is Assumed between the Six Unknown Quantities. §17. In the case in which ui u^ was taken equal to U2 u^ a relation was in fact assumed betwixt the six unknown quantites a, c, e, h, $, tp ; for, as we saw, to put ii\ u^ — ui uz is tantamount to putting a = 0. Hence, as was noticed in §7, we had only five unknown quantities to be found from six equations. Now, when any relation whatever is assumed betwixt the six unknown quantities, the root of the quintic can be found in terms of the given coefficients P2 , Pz , etc., without any definite numerical values being assigned to the coefficients, because six rational quantities can always be found from seven equations. The General Case. §18. We have hitherto been dealing with solvable quintics, assumed to be subject to some condition additional to what is involved in their solvability. We have now to consider how the general case is to be dealt with. That is to say, we here make no supposition regarding the equation of the fifth degree F {x) = except that it wants the second term and is solvable algebraically. In this case it is impossible to find the roots in terms of the coefficients j^^, 2hf ^^c, while these coefficients retain their general symbolic forms. But the equations in §3 enable us to find the roots when the coefficients receive any definite numerical values that render the equation solvable. For, we have the six equations (15) to determine the six unknown quantities a, c, e, h, 0,

lex, Hudson, var. angustifolium, Cray. NAIADACE^. Potamogeton natans, Ij. " amplifolius, Tuckerm. " lucens. L., var. minor. " perfoliatus, L. " compressus, L. " pauciflorus, Pursh. " pectinatus, L. ALfSMACEvE. Alisma plantngo, L., var. Ameri- can um, Cray. Sagittaria variabilis, Engelm. HYDKOCIIAKIDACEiE. Anacharis Canadensis, Planchon. Vallisneria spiralis, L. ORCHIDACE.E. Orchis spectabilis, L. ORCUWACEM— Continued. * Habenaria tridcntata, Lindl. Mill- grove. * " virescens, Spi-eng. Prin- ce's Island. * " viridis, K. Br., var. brac- teata, Reichenbach. Mountain at head of Queen Street. * " hyperborea, R. Br. Sul- phur Spring. " Hookeri, Torr. * " orbiculata, Torr. * " leucojjhaia, Cray. Mill- grove. * " psychodes, Cray. Mill- grove. * " fimbriata, R. Br. Land's Farm. Coodyera pubeFceiis, R. Br. * Spiranthes cernua, Richardson. The Dell, Ancaster. * Pogonia ophioglossoides, Nutt. Millgrove. * Calypso borealis, Salisb. Lake Medad. * Corallorhiza iunata, R. Br. Prin- ce's Island. " odontorhiza, Nutt. " multitlora, Nutt. Cypripedium parviilorum, Salisb. " pubescens, Willd. * " spectabile, Swartz. Lake Medad. * " acaule, Ait. Millgrove. AMARYLLID.VCEiE. * Hypoxys erecta, L. Prince's Is- land. I RID ACE J^.. Iris versicolor, L. Sisyrinchium Bermudiaua, L., var. anceps, Gray. DIORCOREACE.^. Dioscorea villosa. L. Near Dundas Marsh. SMILACE.E. Smilax hispida, Muhl. " herbacea, L. LILIACE.E. Trillium granditiorum, Salisb. " erectum, L. " erectum, L., var. album, Pursh. 154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. lAUXCKM— Continued. Medeola Virginica, L. Uvularia gran!orfolk. Ramex sanguineus, L., occurs at London and Barrie. Uimus racemosa, Thomas, occurs at St. Thomas. Juniperus Sabina, L., var. procumbens, Pursh., which I formei'ly reported as occurring, proves to be J. Virginiana, L. In the discussion which followed, Mr. Geo. E. Shaw, Mr. T. Mackenzie, Mr. Henry Montgomery, Mr. James Bain, jun.^ and the reader of the paper took part. Mr. Fred. Phillips read a paper on " The Antiquity of the Negro Race," the object of which was to show that the negro race made its appearance before the white races. A discussion ensued, in which the President, Mr. John Not- man, and Mr. Montgomery took part. TWELFTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Twelfth Ordinary Meeting of the Session i883-'84 was held on Saturday, February 2nd, 1884, Dr. Geo. Kennedy, Third Vice-President, in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following list of donations and exchanges received since last meeting was read : — 1. The Financial Reform Almanack for 1884 ; presented by the Cobden Club. TWELFTH ORDINARY MEETING. 157 2. Museum of Comparative Zo5logy at Harvard College, Vol. XI., Nos. 5, 6, 7. 3. Proceedings of the Ainerioau Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. XI., pp. 45—210. 4. Journal of the Franklin Institute for February, 1884. 5. Science Record, January 15, 1884. 6. Science, for January 25, 1884. 7. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Part 2, June to October, 188o. 8. Nye Alcyonider Corgonider, og Pennatulider, tilhorende Norges Fauna ; from the Royal Museum of Bergen. (Norwegian Fauna.) Prof. G. P. Young then read a paper entitled, " The Real Correspondents of Imaginary Points." After the reading of the paper, remarks were made upon the subject by Prof. Galbraith and Mr. Alfred Baker. THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Thirteenth Ordinary Meeting of the Session i883-'84 was held on Saturday, February 9th, 1884, the President in the Chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following list of donations and exchanges received since last meeting was read : — 1. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol- II., Nos. 3 to 8, Contents and Title Page, Vol. I. 2. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Nos. 12 and 13, Vol. II. 3. The Canadian Practitioner, for February, 1884. 4. Science, Vol. III., No. 52, for February, 1884. 5. Memoires et Compte Rendu des Travaux de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils, November, 1883. 6. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Vol. XL, iNo. 8. It was moved and seconded " That the Council be a Com- mittee, with power to add to their number, to arrange for the reception and entertainment of such members of the British Association as may visit Toronto during the month of Sep- tember." — Carried. "158 PROCEKDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Mr. W. H. VanderSmissen then read a paper by the Rev Prof. Campbell of Montreal, on THE KHITAN LANGUAGES; THE AZTEC AND ITS RELATIONS. My translation of the Hittite Inscriptions found at Hamath and Jerabis, in Syria, is the only one yet publislied with an explanation of the process by which it was accomplished. The Rev. Dunbar I Heath has sent me copies of his papers in which the Hamath inscriptions are translated as Chaldee orders for musical services, but no process is hinted at by the learned author. In the discussion which followed the reading of one of these papers, a well-known Semitic scholar remarked, " that so long as no pi'inciple was laid down anil explained as to the system by which the characters had been transliterated, it would be impossible to express an opinion on the value of the proposed reading." Whatever may be the merits of my translation, it does not make default in this respect. The pro- cess is simple and evident. The phonetic values of the Aztec hiero- glyphic system are transferred to corresponding hieroglyphic charac- ters in the Hittite inscriptions. Common Hittite symbols are the arm, the leg, the shoe, the house, the eagle, the tish. These are also found as Me.xican hieroglyphics. There is nothing to tell us what their phonetic values are in Hittite, because hardly any other remains of the Hittite language have survived. But in Aztec we know that these values are the lirst syllables of the words they represent. Thus an arm being called neitl, gives the phonetic value ite for the hiero- glyphic representing an arm. A leg being called meztli, furnishes me. A shoe gives ca from cactli ; a house, also, ca from calli ; an eagle, qua from qunuhli ; and a fish, ini from michin. But the question has been raised, " What ])0ssible connection can there be between the Hittites or Khita of ancient Syria and the Aztecs of Mexico f As well might we ask what connection can there be between Indian Brahmins and Englishmen ; between European Osmanli and Siberian Yakuts. Geogi'apliical separation in such case, is simply the result of a movement tliat has been going on from early ^ges. Men are not plants nor mere animals to be restricted to floral and faunal centres. The student of history, who has followed the Hunnic and Monsolian hordes in their devastatinj' course across two THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 159 continents, will not be surprised to find that well-known Iroquois scholar, the Abbd Ouoq, suggesting the relationship of the Iroquois with the wandering and barbarous Alans and Huns. Still less sur- prise should be experienced when the more cultured Aztecs of Mexico are connected with an ancient Old World civilization. Aztec history does not begin till the 11th century of our era, and even that of the Toltecs, who pz'eceded the Aztecs, and were of the same or of an allied race, goes no farther back than the 8th. The period of their connection with Old World history as a displaced Asiatic people is thus too early to be accounted for by the invasions of the Mongols, but coincides with the eastern movements of the Khitan, who, after centuries of warfare on the borders of Siberia, disappeai'ed from the historian's view in 1123. It is certainly a coincidence that the Aztecs should claim to be of the noble race of the Citin, and that citli, the hare, or, in the plural, citin, should be the totem or heraldic device of their nation. Since I wrote the article on the Khitan Languages, in which I traced the Chinese Khitan backwards to central Siberia about the sources of the Yenisei, where, according to Malte Brun, the Tartars called their mounds Li Katei, or the tombs of the Cathayans, I have received from Mr. VI. YouferoflF, of the Imperial Society of Geo- gi-aphy at St. Petersburg, copies of the chief inscriptions from that region. These triumphantly confirmed my supposition that the Katei and the Khita or Hittites were the same people, by presenting characters occupying a somewhat intermediate position in form between the Hittite hieroglyphics and the more cursive script of our Mound Builders. The rude representations of animals and other natural objects accompanying some of the inscriptions are precisely of the type furnished by the Davenport Stone. One inscription, which I deciphered and the translation of which is now before the Imperial Society of Geography, relates the victory of Sekata, a Khitan monarch, the Sheketang of the Cliinese hostorians, over two revolted princes or chiefs dwelling at Uta or Utasa in Siberia. As in the case of the Syrian Hittite inscriptions, I have translated the Siberian one by means of the Japanese, using the Basque, the Aztec, and other languages of the Khitan family, for confirmation. What- ever foreign infiuences may have done to modify the physical features, the character, language, religion, and arts of the Japanese, and, in lesser measure, of the Coreans, there can be no doubt that these are 13 160 PUOCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. at basio Hittite or Khitan. Already at the commencement of my Hittite studies I had noted the agreement of many characters in the Corean alphabet with those of Hamath and Jerabis on the one hand, and, on the other, with those on our mound tablets. The Rev. John Edwards of Atoka with great kindness procured for me, from a mem- ber of the Japanese Imperial Household at Tokio, a work on the ancient writing of the Japanese. One of tlie forms of writing exhi- bited in this work and occupying much space is very similar to the Corean, and is undeniably of the same oi-igin. I have not yet had time to investigate the volumes tlioroughly, Ijut as they appear to contain samples of ancient alphabets with guesses at their significa- tion rather than complete inscriptions, little progress may be antici- pated V)y means of them. Nevertheless the existence in Japan of a syllabary of so Hittite a type as the Corean in ancient times is con- firmatoiy of the Khitan origin of the Japanese. As for the relations of American civilizations, such as those of the Mexicans, Muyscas, and Peruvians, with that of Japan, I need only refer to the writings of so accurate and judicious an observer as Humboldt. Returning to the Hlttites of Syria, who figure so largely in the victorious annals of the Egyptian Pharaohs and Assyrian kings, and whose empire came to an end towards the close of the 8th century B.C., we find that, although apart from my own conclusions no defi- nite opinion has been reached regarding their language beyond the mere fact that it was Turanian, guesses have been made by scholars whose hypotheses even are worthy of consideration. Professor Sayce believes the Hittite language to have been akin to that furnished by the ancient Tannic inscriptions of Armenia. The Vannic language, according to Lenormant, belongs to the Alarodian family, of which the best known living example is the Georgian of the Caucasus. Now it is the Caucasus that I have made the starting point of Hit- tite migration, which terminated at Biscay in the west, and in the east, reaching the utmost bounds of Northern Asia, overflowed into America. Not only the Georgians, I unhesitatingly assert, but most of the other Caucasian families, the Circassians, Lesghians, and Mizjeji at least, should be classed as Alarodians, or better still as Khitan. So far I have found no evidence from ancient Caucasian inscriptions, though such I believe have been discovered ; but an evidence as conclusive is furnished by the languages of the Caucasian families I liave named as compared with those which are presum- THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. IGl ably of Hittite origin in the Old World and in the New. lu die remainder of this paper, I propose chiefly to set forth the relations of the Aztec language, by means of vvliieh I transliterated the Hittite inscriptions, with the Caucasian tongues, which of all Khitan forms of speech are in closest geographical propinquity to the ancient habi- tat of the Hittite nation. Before doing so I may set forth the prin- cipal members of the Khitan family at the present day. THE KHITAN FAMILY. 1. Old World Division. Basque. Caucasian = Georgian, Lesghian, Circassian, Mizjeji. Siberian = Yeniseian, Yukahirian, Koriak, Tchuktchi, Karntchadale. Japanese =.Japanese, LooChoo, Aino, Corean. 2. Amehican Division. Dacotah. Huron-Iroquois inchiding Cherokee. Choctaw-Muskogee including Natchez. Pawnee including Ricaree and Caddo. Paduca =Shoshonese, Comanche, Ute, &c. Yuma =Yuma, Cuchan, Maricoi^a. Pueblos =Zuni, Tequa, &c. Sonera = Opata, Cora, Tarahumara, &c. Aztec including Niquirian. Lenca =Guajiquiro, Opatoro, Intibuca. Chibcha or Muysca. Peruvian = Quicliua, Aymara, Cayubaba, Sapibocono, Atacameno, &c. Chileno = Araucanian, Patagonian, P\iegian, &c. The Nahuatl, or language of the Aztecs, as distinguished from other tribes of diverse speech inhabiting Mexico, has long been a subject of no little difficulty to philologists. It is not that its gram- matical construction is peculiar, but because its vocabulary exhibits combinations of letters or sounds that have come to be regarded as its almost peculiar property. The most important of these is the sound represented by tl, whether it be initial, medial or final. The Aztecs of Nicaragua drop the tl altogether or reduce it to ^ ; hence some writers have su])posed theirs to be the true form of the language, and the literary tongue of Mexico a corruption. Upon this an argument has been founded for the southern origin of the Nahua race. But, as Dr. Buschmann and others have shewn, a mere casual survey of the languages of more northern peoples, the Sonora and Pueblo tribes, and the great Paduca family, reveals the fact that they con- 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. tain a considerable proportion of Aztec words, and that in them, as in the Nahuatl of Nicaragua, the Aztec tl disappears or is converted into t, d, k, s, r or I. Here therefore it is claimed by others is an argu- ment for the northern derivation of the Mexicans. If we carry forward the work of comparison, having regard to cer- tain laws of phonetic change, we shall find, as I profess to have done, that the vocabulary, and to a large extent the grammar, of the Aztecs are those of all the greater families in point of culture and warlike character of the Northern and Southern Continents. Nor do the Aztec and its related American languages form a family by them- selves. They have their countei'parts, as I have indicated, in many regions of the Old World. If my classification of these languages be just, there should, among a thousand other subjects of interest, be found some explanation of the great peculiarity of Aztec speech to which I have referred. The Aztec combination tl appears, although to no very great ex- tent, in the Koriak, Tchuktchi, and Kamtchatdale dialects. It has no place in Corean, Japanese, or Aino, and only isolated instances of its use are found in the- Yukahirian and Yeniseian languages. Of the fovir Caucasian tongues which pertain to the Khitan family, two, the Georgian, and Mizjeji, are almost as destitute of such a sound as the Corean and Japanese ; while the Circassian and Lesghian vocabu- laries, by their frequent employment of tl, reproduce in great measure the characteristic feature of the Nahuatl. It is altogether wanting in the Basque, and is a combination foreign to the genius of that language. Yet there is no simpler task in comparative philology than to show the radical unity of the Basque and Lesghian forms of speech. Such a comparison, as well as one of the Lesghian dialects among themselves and with the other Caucasian languages, will en- able us to decide whether the tl of the Lesghian and Circassian forms part of an original phonetic system, or is an expedient, naturally adopted by speakers whose relaxed vocal organs made fsome other sound diflicult or impossible, to stave ofi" the process of phonetic decay by substituting for such sound the nearest equivalent of which they ■were capable. In order first of all to exhibit the common origin of the Basque and the Lesghian, I submit the following comparison of forms, the relations of which are apparent to the most casual observer. The Lesghian vocabulary is that of Klaproth, contained in his Asia Poly- THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 163 glotta ; the Basque is derived from the dictionaries of Yan Eys and Lecluse. It will be observed that the Lesghian almost invariably differs from the Basque : — 1. In substituting m for initial h. 2. In dispensing with initial vowels ; or, when they cannot be dis- pensed with, in prefixing to them b or p, t or d. 3. In generally rendering the Basque aspirate, together with ch and g, by the correspondingly harder forms g, k and q. 4. In occasionally adding final I or r. (The last named letters I and r are interchangeable in the Khitan as they are in all other families of speech.) COMPARISON OF BASQUE AND LESGHIAN. RULB 1. English. Basque. Lesghiak. beard bizar mussiir, muzul head buru mier, maar nail behatz maats back bizkhar machol, michal to-morrow bihar michar (Georgian) Rule 2, a. skia achala quli hand ahurra kuer river uharre chyare, uor thunder ehurzuria, curciria gurgur hair ileak ras cold otzo zoto no ez zn left hand ezquerra, ezker kuzal, kisil milk eznea sink star izarra suri day eguna kini Rule 2, J. deer oreina burni clothes aldar paltar child aurra durrha stone arri, harri tsheru, gnl Rule 3. great handi kundi house eche akko hail harri goro smoke gue kui tooth hortz kertschi leaf orri kere finger erhi kilish Rule 4. rain uria kural son seme chimir great zabala chvallal The following, though generally agreeing, present same exceptions to the above rules. 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. English. Basque. Lbrghian. heaven cpru ser birfj chori zur red ffori, gorri hiri blue, green urdin crdj'n death heriotze haratz old agure, zar, zahar herau, etshru throat cinzur seker wliite churia, zuria tchalasa wood zura zul leg aziai uttur tree zuliatsa giiet, hueta fire su zo higli gan okanne tongue mia mas A comparison of the Basque with tlie other Caucasian languages, Georgian, Circassian, and Mizjeji, would display similar relations with some modification of the laws of phonetic change. If now we ask what the Basque does with the Lesghian tl, we shall find that it represents that sound chiefly by the letters r and I. This equivalency of tl, and sometimes of ntl, to r and I also appears in comparing the Lesghian dialects among themselves or with other Caucasian languages. COMPARISON OF LESGHIAN FORMS IN tl WITH OTHER CAU- CASIAN AND BASQUE FORMS. English. hair bone wood tomorrow night sheep maize goat six nail low eight sun flesh forehead easy loins water butter hair earth Lesghian. Other Forms. tlozi tlusa ras, Lesghian. rekka " thludi redu-kazu " shishatla shile " ret'lo rahle " betl bura " zoroto-roodl tzozal-lora " antle arle antlko ureekul niatl tluksr mare, Mizjeji loehun bitlno bar, barl " mitli maleh " beri, Lesqhian. marra, Circassian yti tlokva gin illech intlaugu illesu " errecha, Basque. tlono errainac htli ur " yetl tlozi guri ileac " rati lurra, laur " THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEEEING. 165 The following represent the exceptions to the rule both iu form and in numerical proportion : — English. Lksohian. Other Forms. yellow tlelii dula, Lfsfjhian. day tl.Y"! thyal, tolizul " horn tlar adar, Baaque. knee tlon belaun " From the preceding examples it appears that the Lesghian sounds represented by tl, thl, nil, are the equivalents of r and I generally, and sometimes of ff or t. The latter excej^tion probably finds its explanation in Basque, for in the dialects of that language an occa- sional permutation of r and I into t and d takes place. Thus iJeki to take away, becomes ireki, and iduzki the sun, becomes iruzki, while p.lur snow, sometimes assumes the form edar, and belar grass, that of hedar. The last exception cited, that in which the Lesghian tlo)i is compared with the Basque heJaun. is really no e.xception, for elaun is the true representation of tlon, the initial h being prosthetic to the root, as is frequently the case in Basque. A.mong many examples that might be given, I may simply cite hdar the ear, as compared with the Mizjeji lerh. Turning now to the Aztec, on the supposition that it is related to the Basque and Caucasian languages, we naturally expect to find on comparison a coincidence of roots and even of words following upon the recognition of tl and ntl as the equivalents of r and I in these forms of s])eech. The fact that the Aztec alphabet is deficient in the letter r favours such an expectation. But our comparison must be made with due caution. Any one who has examined a Mexican dictionary, such as that of Molina, must have been struck with the remarkable preponderance of words commencing with the letter t over those beginning with any other letter of the alphabet. These wor'ls comprise consideral)ly more than one third of the whole lexi- con. A certain explanation of this is found in the fact that the two particles te and tla possess, the former an indefinite personal, and the latter a substantive, signification, and thus enter largely into the structure of compound words. Whatever its grammatical value in Aztec, however, it appears, on comparing the Aztec vocabulary with its related forms of speech, that initial t or te, which leaving tl out of account still occupies one fifth of the lexicon, is frequently prosthetic to the root. The following are some of the chief laws of phonetic change derived 166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. from a comparison of the Aztec and Lesghian languages. These may be found operating to almost as great an extent in the Lesghian dialects among themselves : — 1. The Aztec combinations tl, ntl, are either rendered in Lesghian by the same sounds, or by r or I. In some cases in which phonetic decay has set in, the Aztec tl is either omitted or represented by a dental. The Lesghian occasionally renders the Aztec I and U by tl. 2. The interchange of p and m, which appeared in comparing the Basque and the Lesghian, for the Aztec is deficient in the sound of h, characterizes a comparison of the Aztec with the Caucasian languages. 3. A similar interchange of n and I, or the ordinary equivalents of 1, such as marked the Iroquois in comparison with the Basque occasionally charactei'izes the relations of the Aztec and Caucas- ian tongues. 4. The Lesghian, as already indicated, persists in the rejection of initial vowels, and the same is generally true of reduplications and medial aspirates. 5. As in many Aztec words initial t forms no part of the root, but is a prosthetic particle, it finds no place in such cases in the corres- ponding Lesghian term. 6. The Lesghian occasionally strengthens a word by the insertion of medial r before a guttural, for which of course there can be no provision in Aztec. I have not thought it desirable to burden this paper with laws relating to other changes, as the relation of the compared words will be sufficiently apj^arent ; but, for the purpose of illustration, I have added corresponding terms from other Khitan languages exempli- fying the rules set forth. COMPARISON OF AZTEC AND LESGHIAN FORMS. English. Aztec. Puoxbtic Chakge. Lesghian. Illdstrations. water atl ar al htli ur, Basque low tlatzintli latzili, latziri tlukur liuchtliu, Koriak day tlacatli lacali, lacari tlyal, djekul alluchal, teluchtat, Koriak knee tlanquaitl lancail, laucair tlon zangar, Basque cconcor, Quichua deer niazatl mazal, mazar niitli mool, Yuma earth tlalli ralli, larri rati lurra, Basqiie night tlalli " " retlo, rahle neillhe, Choctaw yesterday yalliua alhua hutl hooriz, Dacotah ice cctl eel, cer zer, zar kori, Japanese wind ehecatl eheeal, eliecar cliuri gygalkei, Koriak sheep ichcatl ichcal, it-hear klr achuri, Basque ccaora, Aymara THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 167 English. Atzec Phonetic Change. Lesohian. mud zoquitl zokil, zokir zchur stone tetl tel, ter tsheru dust teulitli teuhli, teuhn clmr grass quilitl kilil, kirir cher, gulu star citlalli cilalii, cirarri suri hair tzontli tzoli, tzori tshara skin CU.ltl cnal, cuar quli eye ixtli ishli, ishri chuli wood quauitl kauil, kauir zul " " kauit guet, hueta foot icxitl icshil, icshir kash year xiuitl shiuil, shiuir thahel god teotl teol, teor saal, zalla clothes tlatqtl ratkl, latkr ]Kiltar, retelkum cold cecuiztli '•eeuizli, cecuizri cliuatzala mountain tejietl tepel, teper dubura moon metztli metzli, metzri moots, bars leg mutztli " maho hand niaitl mail, mair ku mur honey neeutll neculi, necuri nutzi, nuzo bread tlaxcalli lashcalli, rashcalli zulha copper tepuztli tepuzli, tepuzri dupsi mouth camatl carnal, camar sumun, moli belly xillantli shillal, shillar siarad feather yhuitl ywil, ywir bel, pala rain quiahuitl kiavil, kiavir gvaral woman eihuatl cival, civar tshaba bird to-totl tol, tor adjari, zur name to-caitl call, cair zyer, zar beard te-nchalli nchalli, ncharri muzul, raussur river at-oyatl oy.il, oyar uor, chyare throat t-uzquitl uzkii, uzkir seker back to-puztli puzli, puzri luachol sun to-natiuh natiuL mitzi evening te-otlac olak, orak sarrach, Mizjeji snow- cepayauitl payauil, payauir marchala man maceualli maceualli murgul small tlocoton, tzoeoton locoton, fzocoton chitina sand xalli shalli, sharri keru shouUlers aoolli acolli, acorri hiro son tepil-tzin tepil, tepir timir, chimir woman, wife tenamie tenamie ganabi nsh michiu michin migul, besuro to-day axcan ashcan djekul give maca maca beekish stone topecat topecat teb black caputztic caputztic kaba bard tepitztie tepitztie debehase old veue veue vochor green quiltic kiltie sholdisa great yzachi izachi zekko " yzaehipul izaehipul chvallal dog chichi ehichi choi no amo amo anu I ne ne na than te te duz he ye, yehua he, heua heich Illustrations. ehulu, Corean tol turo, Quichua kyraii, Fe;ti.seiart/ zirari, Aino thorok, Corean ccaia, Quichua okalua, Iroquois kullu, Quichna zuliaitz, Basque ochsita, Iroquois osera, " chail, koil, Yukahiri aldarri, aldagarri, Basqut hutseelu, xeteliur, Yuraa neit-ti|ipel, Koriak muarr, Shoslwnese ouitsa, Iroquois masseer. Shoshonese miski, Qjiickua mitzi, Japanese lagul, Yukahiri rajali, Yeniseian tup, thep, Yeniseian tetinpulgun, KamtchatdaU si'iii, Quichua homal-galgen, Koriak kolid, Kamlchatdnle puru, Quichua kutil-kislieu, Koriak si pi, Corean suiigwal, Shoshonese tori, Japanese chareigtsh, Kamtchatdalt tegiiala, Sonera h-inuDCkquell, Shoshonese hahuiri, Aymara eztarri, Basque bizkhar, " kapteher, Koriak nitc;hi, Japanese inti, Quichua. simrek, Iroquois pukoelli, Yvktihiri pagolka. Koriak birklijar.jat, Yeniseian mailik, I'ujunl cikadang, Dakotah iskitini, Choctaw challa, Aymara callachi, " comerse, Yuma tiperie, Sonora kanafe, Corean mughat, pughutsi, Shosho7ieBe hichuru, Aymara taehan, Mizjeji eman, eiiiak, Basque ti\n, Shoshonese shupitkat, Uacotah kiliichii, Japanese vucha, Arancanian apachi, Aymara sherecat, Ducotah Lashka, " zabal, Basque cocoelii, Sonora ama, Quichua ni, Basque na, Aymara zu, Basque ta, Aymara hau, Basqzte uca, Aymara 108 PKOCEKDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The Geoi'gian does not exhibit the A.ztec tl, but, as it is regarded by Professor Sayce as the living language most likely to represent the speech of the ancient Hittites, a brief comparison of its forms with those of the Aztec may not be out of place. Like the Lesghian it is impatient of initial vowels, and it generally agrees with that language in the laws of phonetic change, adding, however, this pecu- liarity, the occasional insertion of v before /. The v seems generally to represent ii,, or some similar vowel sound, and is probably such a corruption of the original as appears in the Samivel of Pickwick compared with the orthodox Samuel. COMPARISON OF AZTEC AND GEORGIAN FORMS. English. AZTKC. Phonetic Chance. Georgian. Illustrations. fowl tototl totol, totor dedali totolin, Soiiora red chichi'itic chichiltic tziteli tsatsal, Kamtchatdale blood eztii ezli, ezri sisehli odol, Basiiue ehri, Dncotah house calli calli sachli cari, caliki, Sonora moimtam quautla kaula, kaura gora kkollo, Aymara horn quac^uauitl kakaul, kakaur akra quajra, " sheep ichcatl ichcal, ichoar tschchuri ccaora, " wind ehecatl ehecal, ehecar kari helcala, Sonora heart yullotl yullol, yuUor gulu gullugu, Kamtchatdale girl ocuel ocuel ' ukui-za, kali okulosolia, Choctaw dog yzcuintli izkili, izkiri dzagli, dji ogori schari, Shoshonese nose yacatl hacal, hacar zchviri surra, Basque cher. Puehlon hair tzontli tzoli, tzori tzvere (beard) tsheron, Kamtchatdale moon metztli metzli, metzri mtvare inuarr, Shoshonese silver teo-quitlatl kilal, kiiar kvartshili cilarra, Basque shoulder te-piiztli puzli, puzri mchari buhun, Lesghian tomorrow muztii mnzli, rauzri michar mayyokal, Vuma leg metztli metzli, metzri muciili ametehe, " to kill niiclia miclia mokluli wakerio, enkerio, Iroquois mother nantii nali, nari nana nouriia, Iroquois snow cepayauitl cepayauil, cepayauir tovli repaliki, Sonora suake coliuatl coval, eovar gveli toeweroe, Shoshonese boy tepii-tziu tepil shvili tiperic, Sonora lightning tlapetlani lapelani elvai illappa, Quichua wilhyap, i'uma leaf iatla-pallo iala-pallo, iala-)iarro pur-zeli bil-tlel, Kamtchatdale small tzocoton tzocoton katou cikadaug, Dacotah man oquichtli okichli, okichri ankodj oonquieh, Iroquois oiakotsh, Koriak aycootch, Yuma guru. Aino ccari, Quichua The Circassian language abounds in labials, and thus finds its best American representatives among the Dacotah dialects. Neverthe- less it presents many words which come under the same general laws in relation to the Aztec that have characterized the Lesghian and Georgian. THIUTEENTH ORDINARY MEIOTING. 1G9 COMPARISON OF AZTEC AND ClilCASSIAN FOKMS. Illustrations. nape, Davotah niaslipa, Shoshonese sliupitcat, Dacntah yu pikha, Shoslwnese tekay, tekash, Darotah itaku, Itakisa, " tsliiikyhetch, Knriak culmba, Muysca tap.sut, Ainn gejiuca, Muysca ibusu, ,/ai>anese kuchi-liiiu, Japanese niku, Japanese raku. errecha, Basque arraiigya, Yukahiri ja<'ucl, Ynma akual-iie>iuta, Natchez kflgols, h'amchatdale odul, liasii>ie huila, ,a, the Yeniseian hikh-jaija, the Koriak gna-fiku and goe-beJckak, the Kamtclmtdale ucJdshi-petcIi, the Coreau bao-zie, and the Japanese musn-me ; and, in Ainerica, the Parlnca or Shoshonese wya-pichi, the Dacotah weet-'xchnoug, and tlie Iro<|uois kamiuli-wukh and echrojeha- wak. The Basque word for girl, ala-ba, ala-bichi, is in harmony with illoha, nerabea, and the inverted mut-illa, and corresponds with the Yeniseian hikh-jalja. Besides these more conspicuous forms there are many others which exhibit a common formation. Among the Yuma words denoting boy, and the equivalents of hail-pit in other dialects, occur her-mai and yle-moi, in which the Basque mut and Japanese musu are abbreviated into mai and mot. Of the same structure are the Peruvian Quichua huar-ma and the Circassian ar-jys. Two other words for boy, the Japanese bo-san, and the Araucanian ho-tum, be- long to the same category ; and there are many other forms, such as the Adahi taUa-hache, in which the labial of boshi or ptich has been converted into an aspirate, to which I need refer no farther. The Aztec tetd-puch and teich-piuch are the types of the many terms men- tioned, which exhibit tlie singular agreement, with phonetic varia- tions, of the Khitau languages in the formation of these compounds. A very common element in compound Aztec words is pcdli, which, besides denoting colour as in ya-palli, black, and (luil-palli, green, appears to have the meaning of "contents, belonging to," just as the Japanese iro means colour, and ira, to hold or contain. So in Basque, bal is a root denoting colour iu the abstract, and bar, a cor- responding root signifying contents. In Aztec teyixi-palli means lip, but its derivation is only appax^ent in Japanese, in which language the word for lip is kudii-biru. ^ovf kucJd is the mouth, and biru is the original of iric, to hold, contain or enter. The Aztec tenxi does not appear in the dictionaries as a word for mouth, caiiiatl being the term employed ; but the related Shoshonese family furnishes atongin, tungin, and the Adahi, tenanat. The Circassian lip is uku-fari, plainly the same word as the Japanese and Aztec, although uku is not the present Circassian term for mouth. The Corean form is ipsi-oor, in which ipsi represents the Corean ipkoo, the mouth, and oor, the Japanese iru or biru. So also the Natchez adds er to heche the mouth, and calls the lip ekec-er. The Araucanian, from a primi- tive word ia, like the Dacotah ea, the Yuma yu, the Circassian je, ja, the Corean ii and the Basque aho, all meaning mouth, forms, with 14 176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the equivalent of pcdli, biru and fari, ia-iielk, lip. The Cix'cassian alone retains the sound of itsha, utsha for mouth, which appears in the inverted Lesghian mur-tschi, and Mizjeji bar-dash, their equival- enti for uku-fari. In Iroquois the lip is osk-wenta. By the conver- sion of r and I into n, which characterizes the Iroquois in comparison with most of the other Khitan languages, wenta represents an original bar, -pel, berta or palta. The double meaning of this root which has appeared in the Aztea palll, the Japanese iro and iru^ and the Basque bel and bar, holds good in the case of the Iroquois, for colour is wen- sera, in which tven is the radical, and iowente means " accompanying or belonging to." The form wen is by no means so common in Iro- quois as to make this a chance coincidence. The first part of the word osk-wenta is an abbrevation of a common form denoting the mouth. In the Basque we are warranted in rejecting Van Eys's deri- vation of ezpana, the lip, from the root es, to shut, inasmuch as the same root in eztarri, the throat, would be manifestly out of place. In ez therefore we detect the ancient form for mouth which the Circas- sian o-ives as itsha, and the Natchez as heche. And in 2}ctna, when it is remembered that the change of ^ to n is not uncommon in the Basque dialects, there is no dilficulty in seeing an archaic pala, even if the Iroquois wen did not justify the connection. The Aztec tenxi- palli has derived its enxi, for the t is prosthetic, from such a strength- ened form of the ez, eche, mouth, as is found in the Yukahiri angat angya, and in the Lenca inyh. The following table will set more clearly before the eye these relations of the Khitan languages iii the Old World and in the New :— FORMS OF THE AZTEC palli. Aztec Japanese Iruquois Basque A somewhat similar instance is afforded in the Aztec word for leaf, iatla-pallo or quauhatla-palli, of which the first part is the word denoting a tree. The same is the case with eatcha in the correspond- ing Yuma term catch a-berbetsen. But the tlel of the inverted Kamt- chatdale bil-tlel, the djitsha of the Yuk&hiripaUij itsha, and the zelio£ the Georgian pur-zeli, no longer mean tree in these tongues. The Kamtchatdale now uses utha and uvda, diminished forms of the Colour. CON' TBNTS, PERTAI NING TO Lip. palli palli tenxi-palli h-o hiro iru, hiru kuchi-biru tvensera. iowente osk-wenta bel bar ez-pana THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 177 Lesghian hueta and the Basque zuaitz. The Yukahiri has conformed to the Lesghian dzul in tshal ; and the Georgian, with its che, tka, and tcheka, more nearly approaches tlie Yuma and other American forms. Still tlel, djitsha and zeli are thoroughly Khitan in character, answering to the Circassian zla, the Basque zuhatsa, and the Lesghian dzul and Yukahiri tshaK Such examples suffice to show how diffi- cult it must be to gain a thorough acquaintance with the structure of our American languages, without having reference to the stock from which the}- are derived, as well as the paramount value of these languages in all matters affecting the construction of the Basque and Caucasian, the Siberian and Japanese tongues. Whether the Aztec tl was an original element in Hittite speech, or a corruption arising after the dispersion in 717 B.C., we shall not know definitely until the inscriptions of Syria and Asia Minor, of India, Siberia, and Japan, yield a vocabulary of sufficient extent to enable us to jiidge. It is very probable that it existed as a substi- tute for r in certain Khitan tribes from a very early period, since, in the land of the I^airi, the Assyrian inscriptions mention a town Cit- lalli, in which we recognize the Aztec word for star, the equivalents for which in Araucanian, Atacameno, Shoshonese, Aino, Lesghian and Basque are schalela, Judar, shul, zirari, suri, and Izarra. The land of the Nairi or Nahri, the Naharina of the Egyptian records, has been generally regarded as a form of the Semitic Naharaim, the rivers, whence the designation Mesopotamia. But the word is purely Turanian, and designates primarily a people, not a country. The Egyytian form is the most perfect, as it preserves the medial aspirate and retains the Hittite plural in ?t. It is just the Aztec national designation Nahuatl, Nauatl, or N avail, which, by the application of the law of phonetic change, becomes Najiuar, Nauar or Navar. The Aztec word means " that which is well-sounding, or a fluent speaker," but most of the wor-ds derived from the same root have either the meaning of law or 7neasure or of interpretation. The fluent speaker probably was looked upon as one who spoke with regard to the laws of language and in measured tones, and the interpi-eter as one who converted the idiom of barbarians into the well-regulated language of the Aztecs. The Japanese preserve the word in two forms, 7wri, meaning law or measure, and naori, translation. In Basque it is represented by neurri, measure, and this in all probability is the same word as Navarre, a Basque province. As Khupuscai and the 178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. laud of the Nahri are united in the Assyrian inscriptions, so, in Basque geography, are Guipuzcoa and Navarre. The Scythic Neuri of Herodotus were probably members of the same family. The Niquirans, who are Aztecs, settled in Nicaragua, preserve the ancient name but have hardened the aspirate into a guttural. More than thirty years ago that veteran ethnologist, Dr. Latham, wrote the following : " Tlie Kaniskadale, the Koriak, the Aiiio- Japanese, and the Korean, are the Asiatic languages most like those of America. (Afterwards he includes the Yukahiri and elsewhere connects that language with the Yeniseian.) Unhesitatingly as I make this assertion - an assertion for which I have numerous tabu- lated vocabularies as proof — I am ]>y no m(,'ans prepared to say that one-tenth part of the necessary work has been done for the parts in question ; indeed it is my impression that it is easier to connect America with the Kurile Islands and Japan, Slo., than it is to make Japan and the Kurile Islands, &c., Asiatic." Nothing can be truer than the above statement made by one whose name should carry the greatest weight with all his scientific utterances to the minds of scholars. It is therefore simply incomprehensible how a writer on philological subjects of such high standing as Mr. Horatio Hale could be led to say, " Philologists are well aware that there is nothing in the languages of the American Indians to favour the conjecture (for it is nothing else) which derives the race from Eastern Asia." I venture on the contrary to assert that there is no philologist worthy of the name who, having carefully studied the languages of the New World and the Old with which this paper deals, has come to any other conclusion than that reached by Dr. Latham and myself. And if Mr. Hale will simply follow up the relations of the Basque, which he wisely connects with our American aboriginal languages, he will soon find himself among those very peojjles of Eastern Asia whom he so summarily dismisses. Dr. Latham's Peninsular Mongolidae, in- cluding the Yeniseians, and the Americans, are neither Mongolic, Tungusic, (with the exception of the Tinneh , Finno-Samoyedic, Dra- vidian, or Monosyllabic. They have relations in India among the aboriginal northern peoples, and the Kadun or red Kariens of Bir- mah belong to the same race. But, Avith these exceptions, the Khitan do not connect with the Asiatic populaiions. Not till we reach the confines of Europe and Asia in the Caucasus, where another unclassi- fied group of languages makes its appearance, do we find the relatives THIRTEENTH ORDINAKY MEETING. 179 of the colonizers of America, and tln-oiigh them effect, what Mr. Hale "would do jyer saltum across the Atlantic, a union with the Basques. From these general considerations I turn to the special work set forth in this paper, that namely which exhibits the relation of the Aztecs to the Khitan family in general, and in particular with those branches of it which are found in the neighborhood of the ancient Hittite civilization. The meagreness of my vocabularies of the Cau- casian languages compelled me to illustrate their connection by the closely related Basque in the case of the Hittite insci-iptions which I recently translated. Some examples of the relation of the Hittite language spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia in the 8th and preceding centuries B.C., may fitly close the argument in favour of the Hittite or Khitan origin of these and their related languages. COMPARISON OF HITTITE FORMS FROM THE MONUMENTS. English. Hittite. Basque. Japanese. Aztec. dependence kakala katalo kakari cacalic, cetilia incite kasakaka kitzikatii. kilikatu keshikake cocolquitia oppose kakeka jauki giyaku ixquaqua desii'ous manene min mune mayanani beseech neka nastu negau notza modest simaka zimiko tsume temociui country kane gune kuni cana cut kara zilhetze kiru xeloa he ra hura, hau are ye small sasa chiki sasai xocoa put tara ezarri ateru tlalia fight tiketi zehatu, etsaigo tekitai teyaotia between neke nas, nahas naka netech hastily sakasakasa takataka sekaseka iciuhcayotica destroy kasa chikitu kachi cacayaca lay waste susane zuzi susami xixinia accord kane on-gune kanai cen come al el, hel iru, kuru vallauh house taku tegi taku techan I ne ni mi ne within tata ta, hetan tate titech at ka gau oku CO in ne an, n ni nebala kika naburi kiki navallachia vex hear caoui ruler basa bushi pachoa friend tineba tomobito tenamic From these examples it appears that the best living representative of ancient Hittite speech is the Japanese, which, with the Aztec down to the time of Spanish conquest, has never ceased to be a liter- ary language. Standing midway between the long-forgotten Hittite 180 PROCEEDINGS OF THK CANADIAN INSTITUTE. civilization of Syria and the now extinct native civilization of Mex- ico, Japan affords the most satisfactory starting point for the investi- gation of problems of world-wide interest that find their centre in the Khitan name. In its name Yamato it sliows a closer connection with Hamath than with the land of the Nahri in Mesopotamia. As the home, therefore, of the scribes, whom the Pernvians called Amau- tas and the Aztecs Amoxoaquis, literature naturally flourished in its islands ; and the believer in Holy Writ will see in Japanese cul- ture and prosperity the result of the blessing of Him who is gover- nor among the nations upon the Kenite " scribes that came of Ham- ath, the father of Beth-Rehob," Hittites indeed, but nobler than their fellows.* Mr. Buchan was of opinion that it was impossible to pro- nounce an opinion upon the paper without examining the lists of words carefully, but the conclusion that the American Indians reached this continent from north-eastern Asia seemed exceedingly reasonable. He must, however, differ from Prof. Campbell in regard to the relationship of the Hinos and Japanese. Recent accounts had confirmed him in the view that they were radically different in language as well as in physique. He might mention that it had been clearly established that the Hinos were, as according to a pet theory ot his they ought to be, a white race, seeing that they inhabited a moist and cloudy region. The contradicting accounts of previous travellers as to their colour were due to the Hino abhorrence of water, at least when applied externally. Mr. Notman, Mr. Shaw, Mr. Dunlop and Mr. Murray also took part in the discussion. * Mr. VanderSmissen has kindly called my attention to the fact that Professor Schleicher, whom in my former paper on the Khitan Languages I inadvertently rei^resented as constituting grammatical construction the soul of language, really gives great prominence to the phonetic element, especially to that portion of it which expresses relation. I am glad to acknowledge this correction of an extreme statement by so competent a disciple of the great German philologist. THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 181 Mr. VanderSmissen also read a paper by the Kc\-. Dr. MacNish, of Cornwall, entitled : — THE GAELIC TOPOGRAPHY OF WALES AND THE LSLfC OF MAN. In a paper wliicli I luid the pleasure of sending to the Canadian In- stitute during last year, I endeavoured to prove, by the examination of topographical names in England and Scotland and Ireland, that Celts ■who spoke Gaelic must have preceded the Cymry in the occupation of the British Isles. On the strength of evidence which appeared to me satisfactory, I came to the conclusion that " the tii'st powerful stream of immigration into Great Britain and Ireland was Gaelic ; that the Scottish Gaels are the representatives of those Celts who were the first to enter Britain and to travel northwards from the South of England to Scotland ; and that the remote ancestors of the Scottish Gaels and the Celts who were the first to people Ii-eland, were one and the same people and spoke the same language." I propose in this paper to examine the Topography of the Isle of Man and of Wales, in the hope that corroborative evidence can thias be obtained in favour of the theory, that Celts who spoke Gaelic pre- ceded the Cymry in the occupation of Great Britain ; and that the arrival of the Cymry must have been much later than that of the Gaels whose language is still discernible, after the glide of many cen- turies, in the names of headlands and mountains, and lochs, and bays, and rivers. It is reasonable to conjecture that the earliest occupants of Britain wended their way westward, and that a (Jeltic population settled in the Isle of Man long before the Romans invaded Britain • and that from Man many Celts must have passed into Ireland and at different times into Scotland. The Toj)ography of the Isle of Man ; the names which still survive and which a succession of foreign mas- ters was powerless to obliterate ; the language which the Manksmen speak down to our own day ; and the literature which they have, though it is not very extensive, — combine to prove that the Isle of Man and its inhabitants are normally Gaelic, and that Manx is closely allied to Irish and especially to Scottish Gaelic. Dr. J oyce in his inter- esting woi'k, Irish Names of Places, (Vol. I, p. 1G3), has this refer- ence to Manannan Beg Mac y Leirr, who, the Manksmen aver, was the founder, father and legislator of their country. " One of the 182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. mo.st celebrated characters among the people, i.e., the Tuatli de Danaan, was Manannan Mac Leir, of whom we are told in Cormac's Glossary and other ancient authorities, that he was a famous merchant who resided in and gave name to Inis Manann, or the Tsle of Man . . ." The conjecture has been advanced, that the term Mannin is com- pounded of nieadhon, middle, and in, an island ; and that accordingly, it is a purely Gaelic word, signifying " the middle island." A glance at the map will show, that the Isli; of Man is situated in a very con" venient position so far as England, Ireland and Scotland are con" cerned ; and that in the days of irregular and unpiineipled warfare, it could not fail to be involved in the continual stniggles that were going on in those kingdoms. Three armed legs form the present armorial bearing of the Isle of Man. The motto, Quocuvque jeceris stahit, inasmuch as no trjuisposition of the words can alter the true meaning, may be regarded as an ingenious allusion to the three alternatives which Man in the days of its independence possessed, of leaning foi- support on one or more of its more powerful neighbours. That the Manksmen could and can speak their own Gaelic after being subject to their Welsh neighbours for 400 years, and to the Danes for 15.S years. ;vnd to the Norwegians for 200 years, and after owning the sway of England and Scotland for 139 years before the Isle of Man became the property of the Stanleys with whom it re- mained for 330 years, when it passed into the possession of the Lords and Dukes of Atholl, who surrendered every claim to it in 1829, — goes verv fai' to show how sti'ong the lite of a language can be, and how its \itality can continue and be vigorous even when unfriendly forces of a powerful kind are, it may be, intent on destroying it. Tiiylor in his Words and Places, (pp. 260, 2ol), maintains that Man signifies a district. He goes on to state that " the map of the Tsle of Man contains about four hundred names, of which about 20 per cent, are English, 21 per cent. Noi-wegian, and 59 per cent. Cel- tic. These Celtic names are all of the most characteristic Erse type. It would appear that not a single colonist from Wales ever reached the island, wliich. from tlie mountains of Carnarvon, is seen like a faint blue cloud upon the water. TJiere are 96 names beginning with Balla, and the names of more than a dozen of the highest moun- tains have the prefix slieu, answering to the Irish .tltebh or sliabh. The Isle of Man has the Curraghs, the Lousfhs, and the Aliens of Ireland faithfully reproduced." Taylor was doul)t]ess at pains to THlKTliENTH OUDIXAKV MEKTlNCi. 183 make aa accurate examination of the topographical names of Man. It is in the highest degree surprising that, after all the changes which passed over the Isle of Man, and in spite of the numerous languages which were spoken by those who successively exercised authority over its inhabitants, 59 per cent, of the topographical names should still be Gaelic, commemorating thus the early and powerful presence of the Gaels in the Island long before, it may be, Csesar invaded Britain, or the Cymry forced tlieir way as later CJelts into the Albion of Aristotle. In his introduction to his Irish Grammar, Dr. O'Dono- van thus writes : "The Manx is much further removed from the Irish than the Gaelic of Scotland. Its words are principally obscured by being written as they are pronounced without pi'eserving the radi- cal letters as in Irish." The translation of the Holy Scriptures into Manx forms the most important part of Manx Literature. The translators went avowedly on the principle of spelling words phoneti- cally, of disregarding etymological considerations, and of making as near an approximation as might be possible to the manner in which the language was spoken, in order that every Manksman could easily read and understand the Scriptures in his native tongue. It naturally happens that no small ingenuity is at times necessary to discover the exact value of certain sounds and words in the Manx language as it is written. The judicious reuiarks of Dr. Joyce, (Vol. I, pp. 1, 2, 3,) apply with peculiar strikingness to the topographical names of Man : ■" The interpretation of a name involves two processes, the discovery 'Of the ancient orthography, and the determination of the meaning of this original form. ... A vast numVjer of our local names are per- fectly intelligible as they stand in their present Anglicized orthogra- phy, to any person who has studied the phonetic laws by which they liave been reduced from ancient to modern forms ... lu numerous •other cases, where the original forms are so far disguised by their English dress as to be in any degree doubtful, they may be discovered by causing the names to be pronounced in Irish by the natives of the respective localities. When pronounced in this manner they become in general perfectly intelligible to an Irish scholar . . . The mean- ing of a name otherwise doubtful will often be explained by a know- ledge of the locality." Words beginning with Baile are very common in Scotland, and especially in Ireland. Baile signifies a farm, a village, or town. In- deed, a casual comparison of the names in Man, and Scotland, and 184 PROCEEDINGS OP THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Ireland, tliat begin with Baile, will show that there is a great simi- larity if not an identity between them. It will be sufficient to ad- duce a few examples of the presence of Baile in the Topography of Man : — Bailegawne, baile ghobhainn : the smith's town. B tilenahown, baile na h-aimhne : the town of the river. Balladoole, baile 'n tulaich : the town of the knoll. Ballaquane, baile' chuain : the town of the ocean. Ballaquinney, baile chuinne : the town of the corner. Balnabarna, baile and bearna, a gap or fissure. Ballamahow, baile and mayh, afield ; Irish, Mayo. Baldwin, baile and aoduinn, a brow or face. Ballamona, baile and monadh, a moor. Ballawhane, baile and uaine, green. Ballaharry, Ballagharaidh, baile and garadh, a den. Balloun, baile and amhainn, a river. Ballaglass, baile and glas, grey. B dla Kilmorrey, baih, cill, a church or graveyard, and Muire^ Mary. Ballysallach, baile and salach, filthy. Ballaugh, bealach, Balloch : an opening or defile. Ballamonamoar, baile and monadh mor, the large moor. Ballure, baile and ur, new. Ballacowle, baile and cuil, a corner. Ballacooley, baile and coille, a wood. Ballaliece, baile and leac, a flat stone. Ballacreggan, baile and creag, a rock. Ballamagher, baile and machair, a field. Ballnakilley, baile and cill, a church- yard. Bullaskyr, baile and sgeir, a rock. Ballabooie, bade and baidhe, yellow. Words identical with those which have now been cited, are of fre- quent occurrence in the Topography of Scotland and Ireland. I have given the Gaelic derivation or equivalent of the names which have been taken from the Topography of the Isle of Man. Their Gaelic origin is unmistakable ; and hence the inference may be reasonably drawn, that the same people gave names in the Isle of Man, in Scot- land, and in Ireland, to the places in which Baile is found as one of THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 18& the constituent elements, and that the language which was then. spoken in Man and Scotland and Ireland was one and the same. The names of hills and glens in the Isle of Man are likewise Gaelic,. e.g. :— Slieu mayll, sliahh, hill ; and inaol, bare. Cronk na h-eiric, cnoc, hill ; eirig, a ransom. Cronk na Kielan, ciioc, hill : and ceolan, faint music. Slieuwhallin, sliahh and aluinn, lovely. Cronk Keeillowan, C7ioc, cill, and Eoghann Hugh : Ewan. Knockaloe, c7ioc and loch, a lake. Cronk ny marroo, cnoc na niarbh, dead. Slieudhoo, sliabh and dubh, black. Cronk bounie, c7ioc and burn, water. Cronk iirleigh, cwoc and iolaire, an eagle. Glentrammon, gleann, Manx glione, a valley, and druman, a ridge or boortree. Glen Darragh, gleanyi and darach, oak. Glen Moy, gleann and magh, a plain. Glion Mooar, gleann and mor, large. GHongawne, gleann and gobhainn. Glenfaba, gleann, faigh, pasture, and ba, cattle. Glencutchery, gleann and cruitearach, the occupation of a harper. Glendoo, glenn and dubh, black. So apparent is the Gaelic origin of the names of hills and valleys in Man, that any one who has a knowledge of Gaelic can with great facility determine the meaning of the names in question. Poolvash is compounded of poll, a pond or pool ; and bas, death, the pool of death. Port ny-Hinshey, j^ort, a harbour ; and innis, an island ; jyort na h-innse, the harbour of the island. Such was the original name of the harbour of Peel. Maugherakew, machair, a plain ; and ceo, mist. Bowiiiaken, bogha, a bow ; and ceann, head. Rushen, rudha, a promontory ; and sean, old. Rue, rudha : a point. Rievalle, righ, a king, and baile. Ayre, alridh : a shealing. Shellach pomt, seileach, willow. U66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. There are many words begiuuing witli ciuitm, a lieatl, whuse Craelic •origin is quite evident, e.g. : — Kentraugh, ceann, a head ; and fraighe, shore. Kiondroghad, ceann and drochai /, bridge. Kenmoy, ceann and vuujJi, a plain. Kinskae, ceann and sylath, a wing. Kionsleau, ceann and sliabh. •' Kenna, ceann and ath, a ford. Such words as these indicate at once tliat they are of Gaelic origin, and that the Celts who imposed such names on the proriiinent phy- :sical features of the Isle of Man spoke the language which has been perpetuated over rnany centuries in the Highlands of Scotland. Lhergydoo, learg, a slope, and duhh, black. Slegaby, slige, a shell ; and huidhe, yellow. Keillvael, cill and maol, bare. Douglas, dubh and glas, grey. Sulby, suil, an eye ; and huidhe, yellow. Lazayre, lios, a fort ; and airidh, a shealing. Lhen moar, leaii, a plain ; and mor, large. Garff, garbh : rough. Braddan : a salmon, -Gas na h-owne : the foot of the water. Strathallan, srath, a valley ; and aluinn, splendid. dloughbane, clach, a stone ; and ban, white. Loughan a yeeah, lochan a little lake ; and geadh, a goose. Cregnesh, creag, a rock ; and innls, an island. Caoilban, caol, narrow ; and ban, white. It would be very easy to adduce examples in abundance from the Topography of Scotland and Ireland iu which such roots are present, as haile, amhulnn, monadh, cill, magh, viaol, creag, sgeir, cnoc, loch, gleann, port, innis, lecirg, ceann, rudha, clach ; roots which are of con- stant occurrence in the Topography of the Isle of Man. It is reason- able to conclude, that the power of the Gaels in the Isle of Man was paramount at some time in the far-oft' past, seeing that the successive waves of conquest which passed over the Island have failed to obliter- ate the traces of the Gael, and to destroy the proofs that names of rivers and hills and valleys furnish, regarding the people whose time of predominant occupation was so long as to enable them to leave THIRTEENTH OBDIXARY MEETING. 187" indelible footprints of themselves and of their language in the names, ■which the Topography perpetuates for the information of posterity, Thomas Stephens, the well-known author of the Literature of the Kymry, avers, " that the Welsh or Kymry are the last remnant of' the Kimmerioi of Homer and of the Kymry, the Cimbri of Germany."" It is possible to cite the authority of two learned Welshmen in favour of the theory that the Gaels preceded the Kymry in the occupation of Britain. Edward Llwyd, the famous author of the Arc/ueologica- Britannica, who expended five years in travelling among the por- tions of Great Britain and Ireland where the Celtic languages were spoken, and who is justly regarded as the Father of Welsh Philology, thus writes in his Welsh preface to his book : " ISTor was it only North Britain that these' Gwydhelians (Gaels) inhabited in the most ancient times, but also England and Wales . . . Our ancestors did from time to time drive them northward . . . From Kintyre, in Scotland, where there are but four leagues of sea, and from the Comity of Galloway and the Isle of Man, they passed over into Ire- land, as'they have returned backwards and forwards ever since . . . There are none of the Irish themselves, so fai- as I know, . . . who maintain that they had possession of England and Wales. And yet, whoever takes notice of a great manv of the names of the rivers and mountains throughout the kingdom, will find no reason to doubt that the Irish miist have been the inhabitants when those names were impressed upon them, i.e., upon the rivers and mountains." In his Celtic Britain, (p. 4,) Professor Rhys, of Oxford, who is himself a Welshman, and a Celtic scholar of large attainments, asserts that the Goidels (or Gaels), were undoubtedly the first Celts to come to Britain, as their geographical position to the west and north of the others would indicate. In connection with the Ogam Inscriptions, which are found in Wales, he remarks in his Celtic Britain, (p. 213,)- that the Goidels belonged to the first Celtic invasion of Britain, and that some of them passed over into Ii'eland and made Ireland also Cel- tic. Some time later there arrived another Celtic people with another Celtic language. " These later invaders," he writes, " called them- selves Brittons, and seized on the best portions of Britain, driving the Goidelic Celts before them to the west and north of the Island ; and it is the language of these retreating Goidels of Britain that we have in the old Inscriptions and not of Goidelic invadei-s from Ire- land. Their Goidelic speech, which was driven out by the ever- 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ' ■encroaching dialects of the Biythons, was practically the same lan- guage as that of the Celts of Ireland, of Man, and of Scotland." As Lhuyd and Professor Rhys give such an unambiguous opinion respect- ing the earlier presence of the Gaels in Britain, it may fairly be expected that the Topography of Wales will lend strength to the con- ■clusions of those Welsh scholars. The word Abe?' is of frequent occurrence in the Topography of Wales. It is in all likelihood a compound of ath, a ford, and bior, water — waterford. In my previous paper on the Gaelic Topogi-aphy of Britain, I ad- verted to the theory which was first advanced by Chalmers and which has as its advocates Dr. MacLauchlan, and Mr. Taylor, the author of Words and Places, — that, as Dr. McLauchlan contends, ■" the Generic Aber is in Scottish Topography found uniformly associ- ated with specific terms purely Kymi'ic," and that, as Mr. Taylor contends, " the Cymry held the Lowlands of Scotland as far as the Perthshire hills. The names in the valleys of the Clyde and the Forth are Cymric and not Gaelic." I remarked that Robertson and Skene have successfully refuted the theory in question. It is cer- tainly a singular fact that if the Topography of Strathclyde is Cymric and not Gaelic, there are no Abers in the counties of Selkirk, Peebles, Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark, Stirling, Dumbarton and Galloway. Rob- ertson, after examining the theory of which mention has been made, is fully justified apparently in employing this language in his Gaelic Topography of Scotland, (p. 512) : " All the great featui-es of nature within Scotland attest to the truth of the Caledonians being the first race ; the mountains and the valleys all speak to us in their language — the Gaelic and not in Welsh. The author has proved beyond all •controversy that there is not a mountain to be found in Scotland which bears a Welsli name, not a lake or river." ^6ct- is of common occurrence in the names of places that lie along the sea-coast of Wales, e. g. : — Abergeley : the confluence of the white river, (geal). Aberconwy, aber and conabhuinn : confluence of rivers. Aberhonnddu, aber and abhuinn, river ; and dubh, black. Abermaw, aber and baw : W filthy. Abermynwy, aber, and a root resembling monadh, moor. Abertawy, aber and tabh : water or ocean. THIRTEENTH t)RDINAKY MEETING. 189 Aberteifi, aber and tieji, akin to Taff", Taw, Tow, a root which occurs in Tay, Tagus, Thames. Aberavon, aber and abhuinn, river. The question now arises as to the best and most plausible manner of accounting for the presence of Aber in the Topography of Wales and of the Highlands of Scotland ; and for its almost entire absence from the Lowlands of Scotland where a Cymric kingdom once existed, as well as from Cornwall, which has many points of resemblance in language and race and tradition with Wales. In the face of the certainty that a large part of Scotland where no Abers are found in- tervenes between Cumberland, which in its very name perpetuates the fact that it was at one time inhabited by Cymry, — and between the Highlands where Abers and Invers are of constant occurrence, it will be vain to seek for any satisfactory explanation of the presence of so many Abers in Scotland in the predominance which the Cymiy atone time possessed in the South of that country. Is not the conjecture more reasonable that, as Wales and the Highlands of Scotland resemble each other very closely in their moiintainous character, in the ruggedness of their soil, and in the number and strength and rapidity of their streams ; and as no other portion of Britain has such an uneven and rugged surface as Wales and the Highlands of Scot- land, a similar term should be employed to designate the frequent confluences of streams, — a term which is not found elsewhere, and which, so far as Wales and Scotland are concerned, finds an easy ex- planation when the concession is made, that it was used by one and the same people in the far-off ages to describe these meetings of streams and rivers, which are common to both countries. The diffi- culty vanishes when it is granted that Aber, which is a Gaelic word, was employed by the observant Gaels of a remote age to represent these confluences which they found in Wales, and which they found in the Highlands of Scotland after they had passed over the compara- tively level Lowlands. It is noteworthy that Latham is disposed to regard Aber as the Abor in the word Aborigines, " the locality to which it applied being either the confluence of the rivers Anio and Tiber, or the mouth of the Tiber." Ccer or Cader, which is the Gaelic Cathair, a city or fortified place, enters into many of tlie Topographical names of Wales, e. g. : Cader Idris, Cardigan, Caernarvon, Csermarthen, Cardiff, &c. Joyce, in his Irish Names of Places, (Vol. I., p. 284-5), states that " in modern 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. nomenclature, the word (Cathair) usually takes one of the two forms, Caher and Gahir, and that there are more than 300 townlands and towns whose names begin with one or the other of these two words, — all in Munster and Connaught . . . Caher itself is the name of more than thirty townlands, in several of which the original structures are still standing." Cathair is unmistakably present in such names as these in the Topography of Scotland : Cai'den, Carriden. Carlin, Cai'- myle, Carluke, Carlaverock. Carnervon is the name of a place in Aberdeenshire — Catha!r-an-ear-ahhuinn : the city of the East river." The contention of the advocates of the theory, that the Topography of Scotland is largely Cymric, and that Caer which occurs in such names as have been already cited, is an illustration of the correctness of the theory, — is altogether untenable. The very fact that Cathair enters so largely into the Topography of Ireland and Scotland, clearly indi- cates that the word is not strictly Cymric, but that it dates from a remote age when Celts, whose language was Gaelic, imposed the names which have come down to our time on similar physical peculi- arities in Wales and Scotland and Ireland. The word Llan which means area, yard, church, is frequently found in the Topography of Wales, e. g. : Llandaff, Llandeilo, Llanelly, Lampeter, &c. Joyce thus writes, (Vol. I., p. 321) : " Lann, in old Irish land, means a house or church . . . Lann is found in our ear- liest MSS., among others in those of Zeuss : it occurs also in an ancient charter . . . in the sense of house." The word Za?^?^ occurs also in Gaelic, and has the same meaning that it has in Welsh and Irish. I ani disposed to believe that between lann and the Gaelic word lean, a meadow, a gi-een plain, there is a strong resemblance, if not an identity. Joyce admits that, in its ecclesiastical application, lann was borrowed from the Welsh, but contends that " when it means simply house, it is no doubt purely Irish and not a loan word." It is clear, therefore, that la7in is a Gaelic word, and that it does not belong exclusively to the Cymry and to the Topography of Wales. Loch is the term which Scottish and Irish Gaels employ to desig- nate a lake or an inland sea, or arms of the sea. The Anglicised form of Loch in Ireland is Lough. Llyn is the word which occurs in the Topography of Wales to designate a lake, e. g. : In Cardiganshire there are Llyn Teili, Llyn Gynon, Llyn Eiddwen. In the County of Carnarvon there are, among others, Llyn Cwlyd, {caoilead, narrow- ness), Llyn Eigian, (aigein. deep), Llyn Llydan, (^ea^Aaw, broad). Llyn THIRTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 191 is douVjtless the purely Oaelic word, linne, which signifies a pool, lake, gulf. Li7m enters into such words as Lincoln, Linn, Loch Linne, Roslin, Dublin. Though a difference obtains between the use which is made of linne in the Topograi)hy of Wales and the sense which it bears in the Topography of Ireland and Scotland, the word is unquestionably Gaelic, and as much entitled to that parentage as loch, or cnoc, or amhuinn. The root 7)ioin or moine, a mountain, moss, a mossy-place, enters into mynydd, the Welsh word for mountain, and into the Gaelic word monadh. Moin or monadh enters largely into the Topography of Scotland and Ireland, e.g., in the former country, Moncrieff, Moni- mail, Monivaird, &c., and in the latter country, Monalour, Ard- mhoin. Cam, the Gaelic word for a heap of stones, raised over the tombs of heroes, — a word which is of common occurrence in Scotland and Ireland, e. g.. Cairngorm, Cairndow, Carn, Carnglass, Carnlea, &c., is present in Carned Llewelyn and in Gamed Dafydd, in the County of Carnarvon. Maol, bare, a jyrecvpitous 'promontory. Mull, Moyle, which occurs in such names as the Mull of Kintyre, the Mull of Galloway, Malin Head, Rathmoyle, Lismoyle, Dunmoyle, — is present in Moel Siahod, Moel Hebeg, in the County of CVrrwarvon, and in Mael Famman and Maely-Gaer, in Flintshire. Drum, the well-known Gaelic word for a ridge or hack, is in Carnarvonshire. Kinmel (ceann, a head, and tneall, a round hillock), is in Denbighshire. Dun appears to enter into the first syllable of Denbigh, Dinbych, DunhQ&g, the little dun or fort. Arran, which occurs in Arran Fovoddy, is the name of an island in Scotland and of several islands on the western coast of Ireland. Craig y Llyn, the rock of the jiool or lake, is in Glamorganshire. So far, therefore, as the names of mountains and ridges and hillocks in Wales are concerned, it is evident that Gaelic words are commonly to be found. The names of various places in Wales disclose their Gaelic origin very readily. /, the Gaelic word for island, as in lona, forms the last syllable of Anglesey. Maeltraeth, in the same country, seems to be compounded of Maol^ smooth or bare ; traighe, a beach or shore. Penmore is ceann, and m,or, large. 15 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. In Brecknock : breac, spotted, and cnoc, mountain, seem to enter as constituent elements. Brynmawr, {hryn, hill ; Irish, bri ; Gaelic, hruthach, and mawr moi', large), signifies a lai'ge hill. Crickhowel seems to be compounded of creag and suil, an eye. Bangor (Beannchar, pointed hill or rocks), is also the name of a place in Down, Ireland. Carreg Cennin, in Caermarthen, is doubtless Carrcdy Cheannfhionn, the white-headed rock. Pembroke,, (Welsh, Penfro), is compounded of ceann and bru, a country. The Topography of Wales discloses its Gaelic origin very dis- tinctly in the names of its I'ivers, e. g., Taf, Tave, Taw, Toioey, Tow, Teifi : here, are different forms of the same root, which appears also in Tagus, Tay, Thames, and which has the strongest similarity to Tabh, an Irish and (^aelic word, signifying water or ocean. Severn : seimh, still, and burn, water. Dee, da, abh : double water. Dov}^, dobhaibh ; boisterous. Cowin, cumhann : narrow. Alyn, aluinn, splendid ; or al, a stone : abhuinii, river. Dwyrid, Dur, water ; or duiread, stubbornness. Ogmore, uisge, oice, water ; and laor, large. Y erniew, fearna : alder tree. Wye : Welsh, Guy, water ; Buidhe, yellow. Honddu, amhainn dubh : black or dark river. Conway, Comh, con-amhainn-aimhne : coming together of the river. Seoint, sinte : extended. Gwili, goil, goileach : boiling, raging. Cothi, Guthaich : frantic. Llwchwr, luachair : rushes. Aled, aiilead : beauty (1) The citations which have been made from the Topography of Wales will suffice, I trust, to show conclusively, that the names of the Abers, and rivers, and forts, and hills, and lakes of Wales are of Gaelic origin ; and that the same Celtic people gave, in the unrecorded ages of the past, the names which the prominent physical features of Wales and Ireland and Scotland have preserved over the centuries, and by which, though at times in the midst of obscurity, those natu- ral features are still wont to be described. THIRTEENTH ORDIKARY MEETING. 193 In tlie preface to his Gramviatica Celtica, Zeuss (than whom thei'e is no better authority), asserts " that it can by no means be estab- lished that there was a community or an identity of language be- tween the British and the Irish, {inter Britannos et Hihernos), in the eighth or ninth century, or even at a much earlier date ; although it is abundantly manifest that both dialects or languages have begun from one fountain." That statement of Zeuss may be construed legi- timately enough in such a manner as to increase the value of the argument which can be drawn from topographical names, in favour of the theory that the Gaels preceded the Cymry in their occupation of Wales as well as of the other portions of the British Isles. May not the argument be fairly advanced, that, as the substratum of the Topography of Wales is distinctly Gaelic, and as Zeuss, as the result of his exhaustive and masterly examination of the oldest forms of the Celtic languages or dialects contends, that long befoi-e the eighth or ninth century there was no identity of language between what may be regarded as the Cymry and the Gael, — to the Celts who spoke Gaelic the honour belongs of laying the foundation of the To- pography of Wales ; for, although the topographical structure has many stones that are of Cymric growth, the stones that form the foundation and on which the entire structure rests, are of purely Gaelic origin, and have an indefeasible kinship with the foundations of similar structures in Scotland and Ireland. The rapid survey which I have been able to present of the Topo- graphy of the Isle of Man and of Wales will, I trust, serve to corro- borate the conclusions at which learned philologists such as Llwyd and Rhys arrived from different channels of reasoning and observa- tion, and to strengthen the theory, if not to establish it on honest and satisfactory grounds, that the first powerful stream of Celtic im- migration into Britain was Gaelic, and that the same Celts who gave names to Fintry and Bannockburn in Scotland, gave names also to Bantry and Kinsale in Ireland, to Aberavon and Carnarvon in Wales, and to Slieu Mayll and Poolvash in the Isle of Man. A short discussion followed, in which Mr. Notman, Mr. Shaw, and Mr. Murray took part. 194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. FOURTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. The Fourteenth Ordinary Meeting of the Session 1883-84, was held on Saturday, February i6th, 1884. In the absence of the President and Vice-Presidents, the chair was taken by Dr. Jos. Workman, who, later in the evening, retired on the entrance of the President. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. Henry E. Morphy, B.A., was elected a member. The following list of donations and exchanges received •since last meeting was read : — 1. Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, to complete a set. Vols. 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, bound, and Part 3, Vol. 15 ; Part 3, Vol. 16. 2. Science, Vol. 3, No. 53, Feb. 8th, 1884. 3. Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Part 12, Vol. 17, Sess. 1883-84. 4. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, N. S., Vol. 3, Part 1. .5. Atti della Societa Tosc^na di Scienze Naturali, residente in Pisa, Processi Verbali, Vol. 4, title-pages to do.. Vols. 1 and 3. 6. Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part 1. Polypetalaj, by John Macoun, F.R.S.C. 7. Report of Progress for 1880-81-82, of the Geological and Natural Hist. Sur- vey of Canada. Maps to accompany the above Report. 8. Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. 16, Part 4, 1883. Prof. J. Playfair McMurrich then read a paper on " The Skeleton of the Catfish," which will appear in the next fasci- culus of the Proceedings of the Institute. FIFTEENTH ORDINAKY MEETING. The fifteenth Ordinary Meeting of the Session 1883-84 was held on Saturday, P'ebruary 23rd, 1884, the President in the chair. The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed. The following list of donations and exchanges was read : 1. Science, Vol. 3, No. 54, February 15, 1884. 2. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Vol. 11, No. 9. ,3. Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 4. FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 195 4. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 7, No. 4, December, 1883. 5. Corresponclenz-Blatt tier deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Urgeschichtc, 13 Nos., January, 1883, to January, 1884. 6. The Monthly Weather Review for January, 1884. 7. Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Vol. 2, Part 1 ; Vol. 3, Part 1, 2, 3 ; Vol. 4, Part 2, 3 ; Vol. 6, Part 2. 8. The Canadian Entomologist, Vol. 15, No. 12. 9. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of G. B. and Ireland, Vol. 13, No. 3. 10. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 6, No. 2, February, 1884. Mr. J. Gordon Mouat then read a paper entitled, A FEW CANADIAN CLIMATES. Of the water influences which affect the climate of Canada, that of the Pacific Ocean is by far the most extended and far-reaching. The atmospheric drift of the middle latitudes bears it across the ranges of the Rocky Mountain system and diffuses its ameliorating warmth over the vast plains of the Saskatchewan and Athabasca. The influ- ence of the Atlantic is limited to the few hundred miles over which the eastern surface winds from the sea ai-e drawn inland towards the cyclonic areas advancing from the west. The St. Lawrence valley shows this influence in the winter temperature, which is higher than in the central parts of the continent on similar latitudes, and in a heavier pi'ecipitation. The unequal influence of the two oceans tends to throw the meridian of greatest summer heat and winter cold — which, were these influences equal, would lie in the central part of the continent — towards the eastern coast. But here nature has pro- vided a check in the existence of Hudson's Bay and the Great Lakes, which temper the heat of summer and mitigate the winter's cold. It is not, therefore, in the meridian of the Great Lakes that the greatest extremes are found, but westward in the valleys of the Mis- sissippi and Red Rivers. The influence of the Great Lakes is very marked. In the lake region of the Province of Ontario the mean of the three coldest months varies from nearly 30° Fahr. to a little less than 15°. At similar latitudes in the Mississippi valley, and at almost similar ele- vation above the sea, the mean tempei'ature of these months varies from 24° to 4°. The winter isothermal of 20° skirts the north shore 196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. of Lake Huron on the 46th parallel, descending in the Western States nearly to latitude 41°. The winter mean of 25° has in On- tario an average latitude of 43^, while in the Mississippi valley it reaches as far south as North-Western Missouri in latitude 39°. When the occasional extremes of winter cold are considered, the in- fluence of the Great Lakes is found to be even more mai'ked than in regard to average temperature. The lowest temperature in the past twelve years in Toronto, (lat. 43° 31)') was only -18°-4, Fahr. : Hamilton, (lat. 43°. 16') records -20°.5, and Windsor, (lat. 42° 19') -19°. 5, — while portions of the Niagara and Lake Huron districts show no temperatures lower than 12° below zero. Within shorter periods, not exceeding in any one instance eight years, the following tempera- tures were recorded at meteorological stations in the Mississippi and Missouri valley's : — Caii-o, 111., lat. 37° 0' —16° St. Louis, Mo., lat. 38° 37' —21.5 West Leavenworth, Kansas, 39° 20' —29.0 Indianapolis, lud., 39° 47' —25.0 Lafayette, Ark . . . , — 17.0 To instance minimum temperatures in the past eight or nine years at stations further up the Mississippi valley is superfluous. Tem- peratures 40° below zero have been recorded at places in this valley no further north tlian the Canadian stations cited. During the pre- sent winter temperatures as low as — 32° have been recorded in the State of Missouri. The lowest in Toronto has barely exceeded — 1 3°. In the winter of 1874-5, the coldest on record in Ontario, when in Toronto the miuiunun temperature was — Ki'^, temperatures as low as — 39° were reported in Northern Illinois. In short, the lake region of Ontario has as mild a winter mean as the ^Mississippi valley two hundred and fifty miles farther south, and eastward of the R.ocky Mountains it is only to the south and east of a line drawn from Lake Erie to North-Western Texas that the ther- mometer does not occasionally fall as low as the lowest ever reached in the milder [>arts of the Province of Ontario. It is interesting to notice in connection with the influence of the Great Lakes in modifying the cold of winter that the shore of Lake Michigan, opposite Chicago, has a mean winter temperature nearly four degrees higher than that of the city mentioned, and that while the pear grows with difficulty at Chicago, the much more tender FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 197 peach grows luxuriantly far northward along the eastern side of Lake Michigan, and over several thousand squai'e miles in the Pro- vince of Ontario. The area over which the peach can he grown in this Province is nearly ten thousand square miles. It is even found to succeed on favorable soils and situations at Owen Sound, on the Georgian Bay. If the winter cold of the Province of Ontario is mitigated by the Great Lakes, so also is the summer heat. The great central plains of the Mississippi and Missouri in summer become so heated that the mean temperature of July in Missouri and Kansas is little less than that of New Orleans in the same month. The influence of the solar rays on these great intei'ior plains is so great that the trade winds of the Atlantic, drawn eastward into the Gulf of Mexico, are deflected northward and, affected by the prevailing eastward drift of the at- mosphere, are finally carried, charged with moisture, north-eastward occasionally to the Ohio valley and the borders of the Great Lake region. Far northward, in summer, torrid influences prevail. Tenx- peratures of 110° and upward are experienced in Dakota and Mon- tana, and even further north across the international boundary of 49° in the Canadian valleys of the tributaries of the Missouri. But the Great Lakes interpose a buS"er against the easterly drift of the interior heat. The isothermals which in winter trend southward after leaving the lake region, in summer trend north-westerly beyond Lake Michigan. The July isothermal of 74°, which is found in On- tai-io only in the very warmest localities of the Province, reaches a parallel two hundred miles further north in the gi-eat plains of the west. The mean temperature of 70° for the three midsummer months, which in Ontario is found rai-ely northward of the 43rd parallel, is reached very nearly as far north as the 49th parallel in the North-Western States and Territories. It is not until October that latitude for latitude and altitude for altitude the mean temperatures of Ontario and the Mississippi valley are equalized. The decline in temperature thenceforward till winter has set in is more rapid in the Mississippi valley than in the region of the Great Lakes which, warmed by the summer's heat, delay the advent of winter several weeks after that season is established in the central parts of the continent. The advent of spring in the lake region is also later than in the west, partly owing to the retarding effects of the lake water, which has been chilled by the winter's cold, 198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. and partly to the greater distance from the now rapidly heating plains of the Lower Mississippi. The effect of this delay of spring is not disadvantageous, for the occurrence of the last frost damaging to vegetation is very nearly alike in point of time in the lake region and in the central parts of the continent, and in the former districts, vegetation being less advanced when that frost occurs, suffers less from its effects. The general effect of the greater liability of the Mississippi valley to intense frosts in winter, sudden changes and late frosts, is such that north of Tennessee no peach districts are found which compare, in immunity from injury through low temperatures, with the peach belts east of Lake Michigan and in the neighborhood of Lakes Erie, Ontario and Huron. What is true of the annual and seasonal extremes of the lake region and the Western States, has its parallel in regard to the daily range of temperature. It is only once in many years that Toronto, which is fairly representative in this respect of the lake borders of On- tario, knows a range of forty degrees in any one day. The late Prof. Loomis, discussing the results of two years' records of over one hun- dred stations scattered over the continent north of the 35th parallel and between the Rocky Mountains and the neighborhood of the At- lantic, states that only in the Province of Ontario had he found sta- tions at which the mei'cury had not ranged occasionally forty degrees in a single day. At the stations in the Mississippi valley and west- ward to the Rockies, greater changes than forty degrees were recorded several times in each of the two years ; at several stations twenty to sixty times. Even as far south as Northern Texas sudden changes of remarkable extent are recorded by the American Signal Service. In one instance a fall from 80° to 18° within a few hours is noted ; and on the 7th of September, 1881, on the northern borders of Texas, a sudden lowering of temperature proved fatal to over 300 cattle. The facts given sliow that in equability of climate the Province of Ontario is one of the most favoured districts in the temperate latitudes of this continent. While the whole of the lake region of the Province of Ontario as far east as the Ottawa River experiences the modifying influence of the great lakes, the measure of that influence differs greatly accord- ing to elevation, and distance and direction from large bodies of lake water. In fact, the lake influence, while rendering the whole region more temperate than any part of the Mississippi Valley to the west- FIFTEEXTH ORDINARY MEETING. 199 ward, increases the differences beyond those due to latitude, so that the part of the province south of the 4:6th parallel presents a much greater variety of climate than any other non-mountainous district of equal area on the continent. Eastward from the Georgian Bay the effect of the great lakes in moderating heat and cold rapidly decreases, and continental conditions rather than semi-insular gradually come to prevail. Lake Ontario not lying in the direction from which the areas of low and high barometer advance on this region, has but a very limited influence. There being no large body of water to the north, such winter anti-cyclones as take a course to the Atlantic to the northward of the great lakes pour their refrigeratT ing northern blasts down over this region. At Ottawa the summers are hotter than at Toronto, Goderich and many other places a hundred miles or more further to the south, and though the summers over the Ottawa district are shorter than in much of the south-western part of the Province, the mean temperature of July is quite as hot as in most localities in the latter and the maxi- muru temperature very frequently is higher than 95° in the shade j it occasionally exceeds 100° and usually is several degrees hotter than at Toi-onto, the eastern shore of Lake Huron, and even localities as far south as Lake Erie. The winters of Ottawa on the other hand average as low as IS'' Fahr., and are much the same as at Moscow, The average minimuni is about 30° below zero. Snow falls deep and the sleighing season is usually four months in length while in parts of south-western and southern Ontario, it is not as many weeks. Though the difference in latitude between Ottawa and Niagara is only about two degrees, the winters of the former place are at least as mucli colder than those of the latter as the winters of Niagara are colder than those of Memphis in Tennessee, eight degrees still farther south. Yet the sensible cold is not so great as this large excess might suggest ; it is usually enjoyable, the atmosphere being di-yer and there being more sunshine than in districts more within the influence of the lakes. The district of Muskoka & Parry Sound, bordering on the Georgian Bay, experiences in greater measure the influence of the Georgian Bay and Lakes Huron and Superior in tempering the heat in summer and the cold in winter of winds from the western semi-circle. This influence is necessarily much more marked in winter ; though the elevation of much of the district makes the apparent amelioration 200 PROCEEDINGS OF THP: CANADIAN INSTITUTE. less preceptible than it otherwise would be. The summers of Mus- koka are cooler than those of any other part of Ontario south of the 47th parallel of latitude. But this tempering of the heat is due in large measure not so much to the influence of the Georgian Bav as to general elevation and the number of small lakes of great depth and coolness. Like the Ottawa Valley, though not to the same deti-ree, the district is 0])en to cold northerly winds in winter blowing outward from such centres of high pressure as move eastward to the Atlantic in high latitudes. Elevation adds to the cold of these north winds, which however are infrequent in some winters. At Hunts- ville (about lat. io" 15') in Eastern Muskoka, the temperature in January 1882 during the passage of almost the only severely cold anti-cyclone of tlie season, fell under a north wind to a temperature 30^ lower than was reached at Toronto, and actually 47° lower than at Windsor, less than three degrees further south and little more than 280 miles distant in a direct line. In severe winters, a large part of the Georgian Bay, encumbered with islands, freezes over and the teui])3rLng effect of the lake water is thus greatly diminished. The winters of the largo island of Manitoulin, which' appi'oaches the 4Gtli parallel, are milder than those of Muskoka. Of the climate of the ujrbh shore of Like Huron beyond the 46th parallel, the meteorological records are meagre. Tiie district is protected against cold west winds in winter by Lake Superior, but is open to cold blasts from the north-west, north, and north-east. The winter isotherm of 20^* skirts the coast ; inland the winters are colder. The summers are said to be warmer than those of Muskoka, notwith- standing the higher latitude. Small lakes are less numerous, and are shallow and heat rapidly. Neighbourhood to the great breadth of land between Lake Huron and James' Bay — an area which sometimes becomes intensely heated in summer has probably also some effect on the summers of the district. The heat of the southerly winds is of course greatly tempered by the great length of Lake Huron stretching against them. At a distance of from 12 to 20 miles noi'th of the north shore of Lake Ontario extends from the Highlands of Grey in peninsular Ontario to the head of the Bay of Quinte, a ridge or watershed attaining at a few places an elevation of nearly one thousand feet above the sea, and doubtless having some effect on the climate of the basin of Lake Ontai-io. Eastward from the easterly termination of FIFTEENTH ORDIXARY MEETING. 201 this I'iclge the land slopes hack from the lake far inlainl to the central heights of the waterslied between the Georgian Bay and the Ottawa River. The lake has an elevation of only 234 feet (2G4 according to American surveys between the Atlantic and Oswego) above the sea. This comparatively low level conduces to raise the temperature of the holders of the lake. The comparatively moderate temperature of winter induced by lake influence and low level, the presence of high land to the north and west, and distance from lake water to the west, i-ender the snowfall of the district lighter than in any other part of the lake region, with the exception of the district im- mediately north of Lake Erie. Sweeping over these high lands the north-west and westerly winds of winter which in passing over Lake Huron absorb considerable moisture, precipitate most of that moisture, and on regaining the low level of the Ontario basin resume almost their normal dryness. Owing to the comj)arative narrowness of the lake, and the fact that the winds which blow across it are not common or prevalent winds, the north shore, especially in its westerly portion derives a comparatively small pi-oportion of its rain and snowffill from the lake, and the average annual })recipitation is less than in any other part of the lake region with the exception of a limited district immediately north of Lake Erie. Towards the east end of the lake the same influences which make the climate of Ottawa extreme l^egin more and more to prevail ; and the duration of sleighing gradually increases, till at Kingston it is nearly three months in length. The climate of Toronto fairly represents in kind the characteristics of the north shore. At a low level and protected by the lake against the warm southerly winds, and by Lake Huron and the Georgian Bay from the cold noi-therly and westerly winds of winter its seasonal and daily range is comparatively small. The summer is cooler than in almost any of the largei- towns in Ontario ; and few have winters as mild. The mean temperature of January — about 2-3° for the eight years, 1874-81, is nearly nine degrees higher than in Mon- treal, and is higher than in the uplands to the south-west, or than near Chicago, a degree and three-quarters farther south. The average mini- mum of January is — 3°. 1 , the average minimum of the year — 11°. ; the absolutely lowest in the eight years cited, — IG'^.O ; and in the past twenty-five years — 18°. 4. The latter temperature is not so low as has been recorded within the same period at Louisville, Kentucky, or St. Louis, Missouri. The average duration of sleigliing appears 202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. to be between three and four weeks ; in some winters there has been no sleighing whatever. An examination which I have made of the recofds of Toronto observatory for the past thirty Christmas days shows that only on four of these holidays, or little more than one in eight, has there been sufficient snow to permit the running of sledges, and on thirteen occasions the ground was bare. The interposition of the lake water against hot winds from southerly points of the com- pass greatly tends to prevent extremes of heat. The summer of Toronto is cooler than that of Montreal, the Ottawa Valley, and parts of the interior to the north, north-east and we.st of the city, and as cool as the eastern shore of Lake Huron. The mean temperature of Julj for the eight year period cited is 6 9°. 01 — which is little more than three degrees warmer than Paris, France, over five degrees farther north ; and is less than two degrees for the same period warmer than Winnipeg, where though the latitude is higher by 6^ degrees, full continental influences prevail. The freedom from warm extremes both winter and summer is more noticeable. The average maximum of January is only 46°. 25. The absolute maximum (Dec. 31, 1875) of mid-winter in eight years was only ()1°, while that of Gait, 56 miles westward and 520 fees higher, was 66° ; that of Hamilton, 42 miles distant, but at the west end of the lake, 71°, and that of the Niagara district, 40 miles distant, nearly 80° in the shade. The average maximum of the year is only 91°.5 ; that of Hamilton is 96^.9, while over the Lake Erie district and over most of the inland parts of the Province as far as the Upper Ottawa, the average maximum is in most localities as high as 95°. The absolute maximum in twenty years past is only 95°. 4. At Ottawa and even in Muskoka it has exceeded 100°, while at Hamilton it has reached 106°.3 in the shade. It is interesting to note in passing, that moderate as is the annual maximum at Toronto as compared with other localities in the Province, it is a little higher than at Charleston, South Carolina. At Toronto, as, more or less, along the shores of the Gi-eat Lakes, a lake breeze by day and a land breeze by night, blow during hot, calm weather. These breezes usually do not affect the climate for more than a few miles from the shore. Inland, notwithstanding the increased elevation, the temperature is higher in the day time during the summer months than it is at Toronto. Hamilton, only forty-two miles distant from Toronto, and only twenty-three minutes further south, has a much warmer climate, and FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 203 illustrates in an interesting manner several of the peculiar differences due to situation. Like Toronto it is exposed to the noi'therly winds modified by the Georgian Bay a hundred miles to the northward, but it is in a measure protected from the north-easterly winds by the intervention of Lake Ontario. More important in its bearing on the climate is the fact that the southerly and south-westerly winds which in reaching Toronto, have part of their warmth abstracted by Lake Ontario, reach Hamilton after blowing over a considerable stretch of land. Hence the latter place attains much higher temperatures in all seasons of the year than are reached on the north shore : the mean temperature is also higher. In addition to these causes which tend to increase the daily and seasonal range, the situation of the city on a low plain with a steep escarpment on the south and a range of hills across the bay on the north, tends to the existence of great daily contrasts, for in certain conditions of weather, the heat appears to accumulate in the sheltered " ravine" while in other conditions the heavy cold night air of the upland pours over the " mountain" and displacing the warm air, settles beneath it. A remarkable instance of the effects of situation in a ravine, cutting through an extended upland, is afforded by the records of Gait on the Grand River. In 1879 the writer had charge of the meteoro- logical station in the valley of that town. On the edge of the plateau to the west, a little more than a mile distant from the ravine station and about 180 feet higher than the later, was a second station in charge of a careful observer, Mr. Alex. Barrie. The thermometers at both stations were ])rotected by the fence and screens approved by the meteorological service and in use at Toronto Observatory, and great care had been exercised to make the conditions of exposure similar. Here while the average daily maximum temperature was about two degrees higher at the valley station than on the plateau, the relative temperatures were sometimes greatly reversed. On Oct. 10th 1879, the maximum at the plateau station was 90°. 3, while at the valley station it was but 79°. 3, eleven degrees lower. On another date in the same year the difference was still greater, the thermome- ter at the 9 p.m. reading on the plateau being 79", when in the valley it was only 65°, or fourteen degrees lower. There being no station at Hamilton, other than in the valley, similar instances there of the inflow of cold air cannot be cited. But the effect of this occasional inflow is seen in the facts that while the mean temperature and 20i PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. monthly maxima at Hamilton are higher than at Toronto, the monthly minima, from July to October, are very nearly the same at both places. The following tables show the average monthly maxima and minima at Hamilton and Toronto over a period of eight years (1874-81):— AVERAGE MONTHLY MAXIMA. Jan. Feb. Mar. ( Apr. May. JU.NE. July. Aug. | Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Hamilton. Toronto .. 49-7 46-2 50-9 44-5 58-2 72-0 50-8 J 66 89-0 83-8 91-0 86-2 93-9 89 6 94-0 87-4 90-3 84-3 81-6 71-3 64-3 57-4 54 9 48-7 AVERAGE MONTHLY MINIMA. Hamilton. Toronto . . —0-1 —3-1 —1-6 —3-3 6-3 4-0 18-9 16 6 31-1 29-0 42 2 40-4 49-9 49 2 47-4 47-8 37-5 37 6 26 9 26-3 11-2 7-5 2-5 -1-7 The average yearly maximum at Hamilton is 96".9, the average yearly minimum -T'A; the lowest temperature recorded in the eight years (1874-81) from which these averages are obtained was -20°.5 ; the highest 100°5. The absolutely highest temperature on record was 106°. 3 (July, 1868), a degree of heat which has not been reached at New Orleans, or at Naples or Calcutta, in a period of at least 18 years. The average annual maximum is quite as high as at New Orleans or cities to the eastward along the Gulf of Mexico. The mean temperature of the different months at Toronto and Hamilton for the eight-year period mentioned is as follows : — Toronto . . Hamilton. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 22-7 22-2 28-7 40-2 54-2 62-6 69 67-8 60-3 47-6 85-1 24-4 24-6 311 42-5 57-7 66-0 73 3 71-4 63-9 50-3 37-1 26-4 28-4 The mean of the year at Toronto is 44°74, and at Hamilton 47°47 or 2°73 higher. The daily range in Toronto is about 1 3° in January, and nearly 20° in July, while at Hamilton the figures for these months are respectively about 20° and 27°. The average daily maxi- mum of July, at Hamilton, is above 84° in the shade, and not 79° in Toronto. In the warmest month ever recorded in Hamilton (July, FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 205 1S68, the mean temperature was 80° with an average daily maxi- muLii of 93" in the shade. In Toronto the mean of the same month was 75°.8, with a mean daily maximum of only 85°. 4. These con- trasts sufficiently illustrate the effect of the difterent situation of the two cities in regard to the water of Lake Ontario. Along the south shoi'e of Lake Ontario, eastward to Niagara, the general features of the climate of the belt of land referred to, resemble those of Hamilton, though tlie thermometer does not fall so low at night as in that city. The summer heats are intense, and temperatures above 70° have even been recorded in mid-winter. The season is, over much of the district, longer than at Hamilton, where the avei-age period between the last fall of the temperature in spring to 32°, and the first descent in autumn to the freezing point, was for three years (1878-80), 186 days. The measure of protection aftbrded by Lake Ontario from the winds from northerly points of the com- pass increases, and the mean temperature of winter rises. Lake Erie also affords a measure of protection against the cold which in winters unusually severe in the Western States sometimes accompanies south- westerly winds. At Niagara the mean of winter is several degrees higher than at Hamilton, and nearly as high as at New York, and the avei-age minimum of the year is little, if at all, below zero. The heat and duration of summer and the comparative mild- ness of winter make the district peculiarly well adapted to fruit growing. The peach-orchard area of the district is very large, and vineyards averaging four to five tons of grapes to the acre are numerous. The sweet jiotato and the peanut flourish in a degree unsurpassed in any other district in the ])rovince. The mulberry gi'ows luxuriantly. The pseudo-papaw, and the tulip tree, Lirio- dendron tulip/era, grow wild in the woods and attain lai-ge propor- tions. At Niagara the writer has found fig-trees heavily laden with fruit, growing in the open air with but little winter protection ; and. the soft-shelled almond, though of course but little cultivated, with slight ■winter protection, produces fruit equal to that of the common almond of commerce. The north shore of Lake Erie, like the north shore of Lake Ontario, and for similar reasons, is marked by a tendency to the avoidance of great extremes of heat, though owing to latitude and the shallowness, and therefore greater warmth, of the water, the hot extremes of the summer months, and the mean temperature are higher than on the 206 PROCEEDIXGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. north shore of Ontario. In exceptionally severe winters, ice forms to a greater extent on the bays and indentations of Lake Erie than along the Lake Ontario coast, and though the mean temperature on the north shore of Erie is higher than on the same shore of Ontario, the winter maximum in such seasons is no greater than at Toronto. The snow of winter is light, and usually lies but a short time, even in winters when around Buffalo the depth is great and the sleighing of long duration. The eastern shore of Lake Huron has a climate differing in several important particulars from the Canadian shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and illustrating more than these lakes the peculiar effect of a large body of water interposed against the prevailing westerly winds. The winters are nearly two degrees warmer than ac Toronto, and are as mild as those of Hamilton, as free from cold extremes as at Niagara, and from warm extremes as at Toronto, yet the moisture of the lake winds makes the sensible cold appear greater than in the in- terior or in the Niagara District. Spring is retarded by the lake in- fluence, and the mean of that season at Goderich is no higher than at Toronto ; but on the o'ther hand the autumn is several degrees warmer : summer is as cool as at Toronto, and comparatively free from very high temperatures. Goderich, lat. 43'' 25' ; altitude, 728 feet, has a mean temperature for the year a little higher than Toronto. Zer.0 temperatures, and temperatures above 90" are rare ; and the contrast in this respect with the Michigan shore opposite, is very marked. The climate is one of the most equable of the whole lake region^ and surpasses in this respect almost every other district in the middle latitudes of the continent. The peach grows far north, and even on the Georgian Bay. Towards the southern part «f the dis- trict, peach-growing is an important industry. Owing to the moisture of the lake winds, this shore is not so well adapted to the vine as the ordinary or low levels of peninsular Ontario. The rainfall and snow- fall are both heavy, for to the rainfall brought by cyclonic areas, thei'e is added the moisture gathered by westerly winds from the lake. The north-westerly winds, normally intensely dry, gather a large amount of moisture from the lake, and in winter when the land is chilled, this moistui-e is precipitated in snow flurries to a considerable depth. The interior of peninsular Ontario varies greatly in elevation, rising slowly and gradually from Lake Erie ; more rapidly from Lake Huron and still more abruptly from the Georgian Bay, up to the FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 207 Higlilands of Grey, where an elevation of 1,700 feet above the sea is attained. Consequently, considerable diSerences in climate exist in this interior. On the Highlands of Grey, and on the Lake Huron slope the snowfall is often excessively heavy, and the snow lies several feet in depth, when in some districts of the Province the ground is bare. Sleighing usually lasts for three months or more on the highest levels. Of the annual precipitation of this part of the interior, there are but few records, and these cover but a very short period. There is reason, however, to think that the annual precipi- tation in some localities, as in Muskoka, exceeds 50 inches, that is, amounts to neai-ly twice the precipitation of the dryest localities of the Province. The explanation of this heavy precipitation has already been sufficiently indicated. The winter temperature of the central watershed, owing to great elevation, is cold, averaging in some localities below 20°. The ex- tremes of cold, too, are great, though on these, as on the winter mean, the surrounding lakes exercise a moderating influence, and the tempera- ture usually does not fall so low as at Ottawa or as in the Western States at even lower levels and much lower latitudes. The difference in mean summer temperature between the lake shore and the highest land of the interior, is not great when the difference in altitude is considered. The mean of July, at the highest l)oints, is about 65° and the maximum heat is about as high as on the Lake Huron shore. The degree of heat attained is due, in a large measure, to the extent of unbroken land to the south and south- west. At Owen Sound on the south shore of the Georgian Bay, so much does this large land area in the direction of the warm winds affect the climate, temperatures as high as 95° have been repoi-ted in the month of May. At elevations of 1,000 to 1,200 feet, the mean of summer is nearly as high as at Toronto, and the daily and yearly maxima are higher. The difference from the lake coasts and lower levels is chiefly in the existence of a greater daily and seasonal range on the high land and a shorter period of exemption from early and late frosts. On the long slope towards Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the mean temperature of all seasons gradually rises, and at some distance inland the mean temperature of summer exceeds that of the Erie coast by several degrees, and almost equals that of the very warmest locali- ties of the Province. In extremes of warmth, both summer and winter, the temperatui-es are higher than in most localities near the 16 208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. lakes. At Gait, lat. 43° 20', altitude 870 feet, the mercury usually rises to 95°, and lias exceeded 100°. London sometimes records a higher July mean than even Hamilton or Windsor. At Zurich, towards Lake Huron, 103° was reported in 1881. Perhaps as foi'ci- ble an illustration of the tendency of the interior to develope exti'eme heat as can be given, is in the fact that while in 1881, at Brantford, lat. 43°10', altitude 720 feet, there were in May 7 days, in July 21 days, in August 16 days, and in Se])tember 7 days — 51 in all — on which the mercury rose above 90° in the shade, and while the highest temperature was 99°, in Toronto there were but five days, in all, on which a temperature above 90° was reached, and the very highest was only 92°. 7. Towards the south-western portion of this inland disti'ict, the absence of lake water to the south-west, between the foot of Lake Huron and the head of Lake Erie, fully admits the south-west wind, which is usually warm, and winter tempei-atures comparatively high are often recorded. An indication of the genei-al climate of this Lake Erie slope is that the peach is grown, on suitable soils, to an elevation of about 1,000 feet above the sea. In much of the interior of peninsular Ontario, thunder storms are numerous and more severe than on the north shore of Lake Ontario. Tornadoes also occur more frequently, though they are not so violent nor so frequent as in equal areas in Ohio, Indiana and the Cen- tral Western States. The snowfall of the Lake Erie slope rapidly diminishes as the distance from Lake Hviron increases. North-west winds which near Lake Huron and in the highlands of Grey, bring several inches of snow in a single day are usually snowless over the southern half of the peninsula. At Gait the average duration of sleigh- ino- is not more than six weeks ; southward and south-westward the period decreases to a few days. Tlie advent of spring is one or two weeks earlier over much of the southern part of the district, than at Toronto, and winter-wheat harvest is almost as much earlier. Har- vest usually commences in the beginning of July and has been known to begin in the end of June, as far northeast as Gait, and about the 15th of June a short distance north of Lake Erie. The climate, of Windsor on the Detroit River, lat. 42" 19', altitude 601 feet, is fairly representative of the climate of the extreme south western part of Ontario. Immediately to the north is Lake St. Claii', and not far beyond that lake. Lake Huron, affox'ding protection from the cold north winds of anbi-cycloues passing eastward north FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 209 of the great lakes. To the soutli at no great distance is Lake Erie affording only a slight protection against the warmth of the sonth wind in winter. But against the cold in winter of westerly and north-westerly winds there is no shelter except such as the distant Lakes Michigan and Superior supply, and against the warmth gener- ally, and in some winters the excessive cold, of the south-west wind there is little or no protection. Lake St. Clair is shallow, and in severe wintei-s freezes over, and loses its protective influence, and botli it and the very shallow westerly end of Lake Erie become in summer greatly heated, and not only lose the protective influence against extreme heat which lake- water generally exercises, but even at times, and especially in autumn, increase the heat. The extreme south-west has therefore a climate, on the average of the year warmer than almost any other part of the Province, but more variable also than most of peninsular Ontario. The winter mean is the same as that of Hamilton, but with monthly extremes of heat and cold greater than in that city. The average yearly minimum is about the same as at Toronto. Owing to the great differences in the temperature of different winters in the Western and South- Western States, and the consequently great differ- ences in the temperature of south-westerly winds in different wintei'S, the temperature of the Windsor winters differs very much. In eight years (1874-81) the coldest January was 14°. 7 which is lower than any January in the same period at Hamilton or Toronto, or eighty miles northwar-d at Goderich. The warmest January on the other hand was 36°. 2, or considerably higher than any at Toronto or Hamilton. December means varied from 18°7 to 38°9 ; March from 26°.6 to 4I°.7 ; April from 37°.9 to 54°.2. Though the midsummer months show little difference in their mean temperature in different years, October means ranged from 46°. 6 to 58°. 9 ; May from 57°. 2 to 65°.5, and September from 59°. U to 72°. 2 ; the last higher than any Toronto July in the same period. The mean of the summer months is almost the same at Windsor as at Hamilton. In autumn, with the excepcion of the month of October, the two places are alike in mean temperature. It is the temperature of the spi-ing and early summer that makes the mean of the year at Windsor (48°49) one degree warmer than the annual mean at Hamilton. April at Hamilton has a mean of 42°. 5 ; at Windsor 45°.25 ; in May the figures are respectively 57°.7 and 60°. 8 ; in 210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. June Hamilton averages 66°. and Windsor 67°. 85. The earlier springs of Windsor are due in part to latitude, in part to greater nearness to the rapidly advancing heat of the south-west, and in ^lart to the fact that easterly winds which prevail in spring reach Hamilton fi-om the deep, winter-chilled lake, and Windsor from the warmer land of Essex and Kent. The following table shows the mean temperature of each month, the average monthly maxima and average monthly minima at Windsor, for the eight year period ( 1874-81.) Jan. Feb. Mae. Apk. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean .... 24-1 24-7 32-4 45-3 60-S 67-8 73-4 71-4 63-8 51-6 37-1 28-4 Mean max. 50-0 53-5 61-8 77-3 88 -9 91-7 95-1 93-5 90-5 81-2 64-5 53 3 Mean niin. —3-0 —0-6 9-4 is-s 30-0 47-3 51-4 48-3 36-8 25-0 10-4 The mean of the year is 48°. 49 ; the mean maximum 96°. 25, (very nearly the same as at Hamilton) and the mean minimum, — 10°. 75 or 3°. 4 lower than at Hamilton, and almost the same as at Toronto 2+ degrees farther north. The absolutely highest temperature in the eight years referred to was 100°. 6 (Sep., 1881) : the absolutely lowest —19^.5. In the four coldest months the maxima were as follows : — Dec. •68°.3 ; Jan., GG^.9 ; Feb. 63°.4 ; March, 77°. 4. The contrast with Toronto goes to show the efiect of Lake Ontario in protecting against unseasonable temperatures. There the absolute maxima for those months were Dec, 61°.! ; Jan., 57°.5 ; Feb., 51°.6; March, 58°4. Absence of lake-water to the west rendei-s the precipitation small compared with the adjoining Huron district. The snowfall is light, and the general temperature of winter, and particularly the warm extremes, reduces the average period of sleighing to a few days. The fruits and flora generally are the same as in the Niagara district. The vineyards are very productive, averaging in good soils five tons of grapes, and nearly 700 gallons of wine (first drawing) to the acre — a yield probably unsurpassed either in California or in Europe. The southernmost part of Ontario and of Canada, Pelee Island, a township of 17 square miles (lat. 41° 40' to 41° 50' — further south than Rome), has a climate peculiarly interesting. The island lies FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 211 almost midway between Sandusky, Ohio, 20 miles distant, and Leam- ington, Ont., and with Kelly's, an Ohioan island, six itiiles to the southward, and the peninsula of Point Pelee to the northward, marks the dividing line between the very shallow and islandnlotted western extremity of Lake Erie, and the larger, deeper and unbroken area of the lake to the eastward. This peculiar position produces remarkable climatic effects. The water to the westward is generally not more than forty feet in depth, and under the hot summer sun becomes so heated that temperatures above 80'^ are sometimes registered at lake bottom in the habours along the neighbouring coasts. This high temperature not only tends to increase the avex-age heat and length of summer, which here is almost as warm as at Cin- cinnati, but increases the warmth and length of autumn — which also is as warm and free from frosts as on the Ohio River — and reduces the difference between day and night temperatures to almost tropical smallness. Another effect, a physician on the island informs the writer, is that what corresponds with the nightly land breeze of the lake coasts in hot, calm weather, here blovs^ not from the land, but from the deeper and cooler lake water to the eastward, into the heated western end of the lake. The effects in winter of the surrounding shallow water, vary with the severity of the seasons. In the milder wintei-s the usual effects of water surroundings are ex[)erienced in a small daily and seasonal range. In severe winters the shallow archipelago of the western end of Lake Erie is encumbered with ice and sometimes freezes over, and Pelee partakes in greater measure of the continental character of the winter of the neighbouring mainland. An examination of the records of the meteorological station on the island for a period of three and a half years bears out the deduc- tions which otherwise could be made from the peculiar situation of Pelee.* The figures are interesting. The mean temperature, and mean monthly maxima and minima are as follows : * The records, which through the courtesy of the Superiniendent of the Meteorological Service, were furnished the writer, embrace tlie period between February 1st, 1879, and August 31st, 188.'. The records for May, October and November, 1879, and April and November, 1880, are incomplete or wholly wanting. The mean temperature for these missing months has been approximated by the writer after careful e.xamiiiatien of the records of Windsor and Sandusky, what is believed to be due allowance having been made for the peculiarities of the Pelee climate. The hours of observation were 7 a.m. and 2 and 9 p.m. The mean temperature is found by adding together the readings at the first two hours, and twice the 9 p.m. reading, and dividing the sum by 4. The maxinuim and minimum temperatures given are those of the 212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July, Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dkc. Mean .... 26-2 27 '4 32-5 41-7 59-2 67-1 73-5 72-9 66-3 56 4 38-7 29-1 Mean max. 47-7 54 3 54-5 65 85-3 91-0 95 91-5 90-7 72-0 620 49-7 Mean min. 6-7 7-0 18-7 18-7 40-3 61-3 01-5 59-7 49-5 37-5 28-0 9 The mean temperature of the year is 4^ -25 : did the record extend over the eight yeai's which have been used for the averages of Toronto, Hamilton and Windsor, it would probably appear a small fraction of a degree lower. The coldest January averaged 16°. 5, or 0°.7 higher than the same month at Windsor, while the warmest, (34*^.8) was 1''.4 colder. The absolutely lowest temperature ( — 12°) occurred when the we.st end of the lake was covered with ice and was 5°. 4 lower than at Windsor. The occurrence of lower temperatures than at Windsor during the ice in exti-emely cold weather, is more favourable to the development of cold than is the vicinity of an unbroken land area, an explanation which may find additional illustration along the eastern side of the Georgian Bay. In mild winters the low extremes are higher at Pelee than at Windsor, In January 1880 the minimum at that town was 19°, while at Pelee it was only 25°. In the other months of the same winter the difierence in favour of Pelee was from 4°. 5 to 10°. 5. The absolutely highest temperatures in the winter months wei'e : Dec. 57°, Jan. 55°, Feb. 63°, March 60°. The extraordinary small- ness of the mean daily I'ange in winter is shown by a comparison between the averages of the 7 a.m. and the 2 p.m. readings. The average difierence in Dec. is only 2°. 2, in Jan. 3°. 3, Feb. 6°. 4, and March 5°. 4. In December 1881 the average tempei-aturo was 34°. 7, but the 2 p.m. reading was only 36°. 1, and the 7 a. m. 34°.5, a total range of only 1°.6, between houi's which represent, at this season hours of observation only, but a careful consideration of the facts as to cloudiness, direction of wind, &c., at the times of tlieir occurrence, and for some time before and after, leads to the conclusion that in many instances they represent within a fraction of a degree the true in.ax. or min., as the case njay be, and that in few instances can the highest or lowest temperatures have differed more than one or two degrees from these quantities as taken from hours of obser- vation alone. Where the mean temperature of the montli is not derived from the original records no attempt has been made at supplying maximum and minimum, or averages other than for mean temperature. The mean maximum and mean minimum of November is consequently derived from but one month, that of October from only two, tho.se of January, February, April and May from three, and the lemaining months of the year from four. FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 213 espe<^ially, very nearly the extremes of the day. The average daily range in January furnishes an interesting contrast with the range in the same month at Toronto and Hamilton. April at Pelee is almost as cold as at Toronto, and is more than 3° colder than at Windsor, thirty miles further north. The effect of the cold lake water is shown in the fact that the highest maximum in this month was 82. °9, (April 1881) while in Pelee it was but 68°. Yet the last frost of the season is several weeks later at Windsor than in Pelee, where it occurs about the middle of April. In May, Pelee almost regains the normal temperature of the districts on the neighboring mainland : temperatures above 90° are recorded and frosts ai-e known only in exceptional years. The summers are hot and steady. In only one June in four years was a lower reading than 50° recorded. In July and August only once in the same period was there a lower reading than GO". The daily range in summer is much greater than in winter but still not half so great as at most stations on the mainland of Ontario. The range between 7 a.m. and 2 p.m. for June is 8''\4, July S°.6, Aug. 7°. 5. The daily range above the mean temperature is in summer twice as high, as the range below the mean, the nights maintaining an almost' even temperature of about 70° in July and August, while the day temperature rises in July to at least 80°. This daily maxi- mum is not so high as that of some parts of the Ottawa Valley, and is much below the daily maximum of Hamilton and Windsor, where however the night temperatures fall considerably lower than at Pelee. Intensely tro[)ical weather frequently prevails for days together, when, though the mercury does not rise any higher than on the main- land, it does not fall at night below 80^. In the steaming atmosphere of this shallow lake such days must be very oppressive. The follow- ing are instances from the records : 7 a ra. "2 p.m. 9 p.m. July 86° .... 96° ... 88° Aug 88° .... 95'- ... 85° Sept 82° .... 98° .... 84" September, in regard to heat, is properly a summer month, its mean being higher than that of a Paris July, and little lower than tliat of a Toronto August. In 1881 the mean was 72*. 9, with a minimum temperature of only 58°. 214 PROCEEDINGS OP THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. October averages 56*^.4, nearly ten degrees warmer than at Toi-onto, and quite as warm as in the Ohio Yalley. November prolongs the balmy, hazy weather which persists here for months, and it is not till about the 12th of the month that the first hoar frost of the season usually occurs on the warmer soils of the island. In winter sleighing is rare. The rainfall in the warmer months is comparatively light, owing to the high temperature above the shal- low surrounding waters checking condensation. The mean period in which the mercury does not fall to 36'^ — the average point at which hoar frost here occurs — is nearly seven months in length, or quite as long as at Memphis, Tennessee, and much longer than throughout most of Ohio and Indiana. It extends from April 14th to Nov. 1 2th. The great length of the season, combined with the long steady heat admits of the full maturing of cotton, which at one Pelee farm visited by the writer, has been grown for many years without any special cai'e either to secure protection or early maturity. Climatic conditious are more favorable to the cultiva- tion of the Catawba grape on Pelee and adjacent islands than in any other part of America. Including the mainland on both sides of the lake, this district is the most famous wine district on the continent, with the exception of a small area in California, where however the yield per acre is not greater than here. On the islands alone, millions of gallons of wine are produced, and the area in vineyards can be crreatly extended. The grape crop is never injured by frosts, and conditions in regard to moisture are more favourable to avoidance of loss through mildew than in the Ohio Valley, which formerly was the chief centre on this continent of the production of Catawba wine. To find European parallels to the various climates of Ontario which have been described, would be no easy task Individual districts will find winter parallels in the Crimea, on the banks of the Danube, and at Berlin on the one hand, and on the other at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Astrachan and in Central Russia. The summers of parts of the Province are paralleled in those of Lisbon, Northern Spain and Italy, Southern France, the lower Danube and Constantinople, or in the cool summers of Paris and Berlin. The Ottawa Valley and the central and inland parts of the Province of Ontario have summers like those of Vienna. Toronto at any season of the year differs but little in temperature from Bucharest. The month of July at Hamil- ton and Windsor is almost as warm as at Oran, in Algiers, and but FIFTEENTH ORDINARY MEETING. 215 little cooler than at Jerusalem, in Sj^ria. In general, it may be said that a line from the Danube through Bucharest to Moscow would furnish parallels to the climates along a line from Windsor north- easterly to Pembroke, on the Ottawa — though the summers of the latter place are warmer than those of Moscow. By a British standard the summers of much of the Province may be considered long. May in south-western Ontario is warmer than July at Edinburgh. September is warmer than July at London, and warmer than September at Vienna. The vine, maize and sorghum fully mature in most parts of tlie Province south of the 46th parallel, and in not a few districts yield as abundantly as in any part of America or Europe. The limitations on the cultivation of the vege- tals of similar latitudes in Europe is more in the intensity of the winter frosts than in the lack of a sufficiently lozig or warm summer. NOTE. The length and heat of Ontario summers contrasted with those of other places in Canada, and various places in Europe, may lie seen by a glance over the following table. The means for Toronto, Hamilton, Windsor and Winnipeg are derived from the annual records of the Canadian Mete. " 6, complete. " 7, Nos. 2-10. 6. Journal of the Franklin Institute for May, 1884. 7. Journal of the Microscopical Society for April, 1884. 8. The Canadian Practitioner for May, 1884. 9. Proceedings of the Worcester Society of Antiquity for 1883, No. 20. The following gentlemen were elected Honorary Members of the Canadian Institute : Daniel Wilson, LL.D., Rev. John McCaul, D.D., Prof. Halfour Stewart, (Owen College, Manchester, ) and the Abbe Provencher, Cap Rouge, Quebec. The Hon. Secretary read the Annual Report of the Council as follows : ANNUAL REPORT, SESSION 1883-84. The Council of the Canadian Institute have the honour to lay before the members their Thirty-fifth Annual Report. The attendance at the weekly meetings has been satisfactory, and a large number of papers have been read. These will compare favorably in average merit with those of any preceding Session. In addition to the regular work of the Institute, a course of three popular public lectures on sanitary subjects 240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. was arranced for and delivered in the Library under the joint auspices of the Institute and the Provincial Board of Health. The lecturers were Dr. Old- right, Dr. Cassidy and Dr. Bryce. The number of members has increased from 225 to 2.36, and a larger number than heretofore have made use of the reading-room and library. As will be •seen by reference to one of the appendices to this report, the number of books and periodicals taken out by members has nearly doubled. The number of Societies with which we exchange publications is now 140. The number of donations and exchanges received has been 800, as against 280 during the pre- cedinc^ j'ear. One hundred and twenty volumes have been bound, and eighty volumes and numbers purchased to complete sets. It is much to be desired that funds should be forthcoming to bind the whole of the 700 volumes that are now awaiting the binder. A change has been made in the method of publishing the Proceedings, which. it is believed, will have the effect of rendering our transactions more accept- able to our members without rendering them less valuable to other Societies. The Council having devoted so much attention to the Library, Reading- room, Journal and Exchanges, has not been able to put the collections in the museum in order or inci'case them. This department, however, has not been •altogether neglected . A few valuable skins have been stuffed, and the very handsome offer made by Mr. Brodie to furnish a collection of insects, provided the Institute supplied cases, has been accepted, and a number of cases have been placed at his disposal. Herewith are submitted appendices, showing (1) the membership, (2) the financial condition of the Institute, which will be found very satisfactory, '{Sj the number and sources of the donations and exchanges, (4) the number of books and periodicals issued to members, (5) the list of periodicals subscribed for, and (6) the list of periodicals presented to the Institute, with the names of 'the donors. All of which is respectfully submitted. J. M. BUCHAN, President. APPENDIX I. MEMBERSHIP. Number of Members, March .31st, 1883 225 Withdrawals and Deaths during the past year 25 200 Elected during the Session 1883-84 36 Total number of Members, April 1st, 1884 236 Composed of: Corresponding Member 1 Honorary Member 1 Life Members 17 Ordinary Members 217 Total 236 THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING. 247 APPENDIX IJ. TREASURER I^f ACCOUNT WITH THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, .SESSION OK 1883-4, To Summary $ cts. ' ' Balance on hand 680 04 " Annual Subscriptions 588 00 " Eents 179 50 ' ' Journals Sold 1 7 25 " Interest on Deposits 17 10 " Freight 1 20 ■ ••? 1,492 09 142 23 78 07 34 82 42 19 32 SO 25 92 24 39 24 00 14 30 9 49 71 50 11,492 09 By Summary $ cts. " Salaries 286 47 " Periodicals 244 34 ' ' Interest on Mortgage 238 78 " Printing 222 79 " Fuel ' ' Postage . " Kxpress ■ ' ' Gas ' ' Furniture " Stationery " Repairs " Water ' ' Contingencies " Taxes " Cash in Bank A)iii(ft,s. Building .$11,000 00 Warehouse 720 00 Ground 2,500 00 Library 5,500 00 Specimens 1,200 00 Personal Property 400 00 $21,320 00 Liabilttlcs. ' > Mortgage .-$3,41 1 00 Balance in favour of Institute 1 7,909 00 ■■ §21,320 00- Examined, compared with vouchers and found correct. E. A. MEREDITH, ) , ,., ' } Auditors. J. GALBEAITH,, ) 14th April, 1884. :248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. APPENDIX III. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. Books and Pamphlets received from— April 1, 18S2, to April 1, 1883. •Canadian 30 United States 60 Great Britain and Ireland 100 India, and other British Colonies, exclusive of Canada 20 Foreign 70 Total 280 April i, 1883, to April 1, 1884. Canadian 90 United States 300 Great Britain and Ireland 200 India, and other British Colonies, exclusive of Canada 40 Foreign 170 Total 800 The number of Societies with which the Institute exchanges is. . 140 The following are the principal Institutions that have supplied back numbers .of their publications to completed sets. Smithsonian Institution. Essex Institute. New York Academy of Sciences. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Worcester Society of Antiquity. Harvard University Library. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Peabody Institute, Baltimore. Entomological Society of Ontario. Eoyal Scottish Society of Arts. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge Philosophical Society. Leeds Philosophical Society. Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Koyal Dublin vSociety. Royal Colonial Institute. Royal Geograj)hical Society. Institution of Civil Engineers, G. B. The Victoria Institute. The Linnean Society. New Zealand Institute. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft " Isis, " Dresden. The Literary and Philosophical Society, of Liverpool. Note. — The donations presented by the above, and some others have .already been given in detail. THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING. 249 APPENDIX IV. The number of books and periodicals issued to members : — (1) From April 1, 1882, to April 1, 1883 450 (2) " " 1,1883, "1,1884 860 appp:ndix V. List of periodicals subscribed for : — American Journal of the Medical Lancet. Sciences. London Quarterly Review. Athenaeum. Longman's Magazine. Atlantic Monthly. Macmillan's Magazine. Blackwood's Magazine. Mind. Brain. Nature. British Quarterly Review. Nineteenth Century. Builder. North American Review. Century Magazine. Popular .Science Monthly. Contemporary Review. Princeton Review. Critic. Punch. Edinburgh Review. Scientific American. English Mechanic. Scientific American Supplement. Fortnightly Review. Times, Weekly. ■Graphic. Westminster Review. To the above have been added for the current year : — Illustrated London News. English Illustrated Magazine. Saturday Review. Harper's Monthly Magazine. The Week. The following were discontinued at the end of 1883 : — The Builder. Critic. St. James's Gazette. The Medical News. APPENDIX VI. Periodicals presented to the Institute, and the names of the donors : — Das Echo—W. H. VanderSmissen, Esq., M.A. Le Temps, Paris — Dr. C. W. Coverntou. Spectator — Prof. Hutton, Le Figaro, for 1883. > ri tti oi -n da Le Courrierdel'Europe,forfSS4. \ ^^^"- ^- ^^^^^' ^'^•' ^•^• On motion of Mr. J. C. Dunlop, seconded by Mr. Alan Macdougall, the Report was adopted. The following Officers and Members of Council nominated at last meeting were elected for the ensuing year : President, W. H. Ellis, Esq., M. A., M. B. First Vice-President, George Murray, Esq. 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Second Vice-President, George Kennedy, Esq., M. A,, LL.D. Third Vice-President, E. A. Meredith, Esq., LL.D. Treasurer, John Notman, Esq. Recording Secretary, James Bain, jun., Esq. Corresponding Secretary, W. H. VanderSmissen, Esq., M. A. Librarian, George E. Shaw, Esq., B. A. Curator, David Boyle, Esq. MEMBER.S OF COUNCIL. James Loudon, Esq., M. A., F. R. S. C. J. M. Buchan, Esq., M. A. Alan Macdougall, Esq., C. C, F. R. S. C. P. H. Bryce, Esq., M. A., M. D. Daniel Wilson, Esq., LL.D., F. R. S. E., F. R. S. C. Alexander Marling, Esq., LL.B. On motion of W. H. VanderSmissen, M. A., it was resolved: "That in Section III, Par. 6, of the Regulations, the words "an Editor " * be inserted after the word " Librai-ian." It was moved by Mr. Alan Macdougall, and seconded by Mr. B. B. Hughes : " That the thanks of the Institute be presented to Mr. J. M. Buchan, the retiring President, in recognition of his valuable services rendered during the past year." Carried. It was moved by Mr. Macdougall seconded by Dr. Cassidy : " That the thanks of the Institute be tendered to the retiring members of the Council in recognition of their valuable services during their term of office." Carried. • TliH Rev. Henry Scaddiug, D.D., was elected Editor at a meeting of Council held on Maj. 31st, 1S84, OFFICERS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 1883-188 1. J. M. BUCHAN, Esq., M. A. iTirot tUirc-'Prcaiftciit : I cSccoiili t)icc-|)rcsiicnt ; JOHN LANGTON, Esq., M. A. I GEORGE MURRAY, Esq. ®t)trlr tJicc-PrcsiJcnt : GEORGE KENNEDY, M. A., LL. D. ®rca0itrer JOHN NOTMAN, Esq. Bcrorliing rotoplasm outside that rather less than 2 /i, while the whole cell is rarely higher than 8 /i. No special cuticular border exists, but all the protoplasm outside the nucleus appears to be denser than the remainder of the cell-body. Although I find it easy enough to detect pore-canals in the cuticnle of Petromyzon, I fail to see them in the border of the superficial cells in Amiurus. Rather a striation parallel to the surface is to be detected. It Ls possible tliat other methods of preparation than hardening in chromic acid mav show the existence of such. The superficial cells are not always flat, but often triangular, with the apex projecting beyond the free surface. This gives a somewhat irregular superficial out- line. Fig. 1. (h) Polygonal Cells. — These hardly differ except in size from the superficial cells. The nuclei are much larger, as much as 8 ft, and SEX«E ORGANS OF AMIUKUS. 253 the cells proportionately large. In prepai'ations wliere the elements have been dissociated in Miiller's fluid, the cells are much more irregular than they appear in sections ; and are further rough with the protoplasmic projections, ' intercellular bridges,' which establish connection with their neighbours. In the lower layers they gradu- ally become somewhat changed in outline imtil they accpiire the form of (c) tSpindle-shaped Cells. — These form a considerable part of the thickness of the epidermis. In length they may measure as much as 35 fj., their nuclei, from 8-9 //, occupying the greater part of the breadth of the cell. They form a transition from the more super- ficial layers to (d) The Palisade Cells, which, however, may be twice as long, and rest with a broad base on the surface of the corium. Under certain changes produced by reagents, the palisade cells are sepa- rated, to some extent, from the coiium, being still connected with it by j)rotoplasmic filaments. The appearance is then produced of a space separating the two layers and only traversed by the filaments aforesaid. (e) Muciis-Cells. — These are common to all Pisces, and produce the slime which covers the surface of the skin, and which also invests the cavity of the mouth. They appear to be distributed equally over the skin except where they ai-e interrupted by the j^resence of the cutaneous sense-organs. Sections which have been stained in Bis- marck bi-own are unquestionably best suited to the study of these, the intracellular net-work taking on a most characteristic and vivid stain. The cells are not confined to the uppermost layer of the epi- dermis, but are formed by the conversion of ordinary lower poly- gonal cells, which at first acquire a I'ound outline distinguishing them from their neighbours and gradually become considerably large. Thus, a mucus-cell which has not yet i"eached the sui-face but is fully grown, may measui'e 20-25 // in length. As the surface is approached the outline becomes more oval, and when the cell eventually opens by a distinct apei'ture between the ordinary epidermal cells the oval outline is more elongated. The intracellular network which at first appears to be formed of meshes equally strong in different directions then takes on a different chai-acter. Its elements are chiefly dis- posed longitudinally immediately after the expulsion of the little plug of mucin which also stains in Bismarck brown. Then only is 254 PROCKEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the nucleus visible, being left behind in the basal pai't of the cell surrounded by a scanty amount of apparently unaltei*ed protoplasm. (f) Clavate Cells. — These gigantic cells, first described by Leydig as ' Kolbenzellen,' enter very largely into the formation of the epi- dermis in Amiur'ics, as indeed into that of many fresh-water fishes, such as the eel, burbot, and tench. They have also been examined with cai'e by Pfitzner in the skin of salamander larvfe, and are de- signated by him ' Leydigsche Schleimzellen.' It is with some difficulty that one succeeds in getting ' clavate * cells (as they may be termed) isolated. After twenty-four hours in Mtiller's fluid the other epithelial cells fall readily asunder, but the clavate cells are generally surrounded by a sort of capsule formed of the neighbouring ordinary epidermal cells. These may be in time brushed oflf, but they invariably leave their trace upon the outer surface of the wall of the clavate cell in the form of a reticular sculpture. When freed from the adherent cells the clavate cells of Amiurus are found to vary considerably in their form; the smaller ones are rounded or oval, and this is the case also in young fish, but in adults the proximal end tapers and frequently divides extending down towards the coi'ium, but getting no nearer than the row of palisade cells between which the divided ends frequently dovetail. The clavate cell has a distinct wall, which, like the wall of other epidermal cells, is merely the outermost layer of the protoplasm, acquiring a certain amount of independence with the age of the cell. In small cells and in young forms I find the clavate cells filled with a granular substance which has a certain refractive aspect, and con- tains one large or two smaller niiclei in various stages of separation from each other. In preparations from adult skin the contents of the clavate cells are very different ; vacuolation has set in either at one or both ends of the cell, generally at the proximal end first, and the vacuoles which are occupied by a colourless fluid are separated by a network of protoplasm still in contact with the rest of the granular substance. Also in the neighbourhood of the nucleus does vacuolation take place, resulting in a clear area through which only a few protoplasmic fibres straggle from the nucleus to the granular matter. Vacuolation proceeds till very little of the granular matter is left, but that generally assumes a somewhat crescentic outline at the broad end of the cell, forming a sort of cap — ' Kappchen ' — to the rest of the contents. By the time this process has advanced so SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 255 far thp granular substance has lost mnch of its granular appearance has become more homogeneous, and takes on a slight stain from vari- ous reagents (red from picrocarmine) which it formerly refused to do. The larger clavate cells may attain a length of lOO/a, when the nucleus if single may be as much as 25// in diameter, wliile if two be present they are rarely more than half that size. The nucleus is generally vesicular, having a distinct membrane, a single distinct nucleolus and a scanty nuclear network, all of which stain with the ordinary nuclear reagents. In spite of the very favourable size for such purpose, and of the fact that nuclei are present in all stages of division, I have not been able to make out distinct nuclear fio-ures • but when the chromatin is not disposed of as above it appears to be scattered in figures, in which it is impossible to detect any plan. Occasionally four nuclei are met with instead of two, and I have even met with cells containing a greater number, without any indica- tion of subdivision of the cell itself. There can hardly be any doubt that the clavate cells have an im- portant physiological role to play. What that is remains still obscure. They are chiefly developed in those forms where the skin is naked, or the scales rudimentai-y (Lota), and no doubt they are engaged in the secretion of some substance which acts as a protection in lieu of these. Their reaction to various stainmg fluids indicate that this secretion must be very different from that which is the product of the ordinary mucus-cells which are present everywhere throughont the class. Perhaps Pfitzner's suggestion that the secretion may be poured out into the intere])ithelial spaces so as to prevent the entry of water may not be very far from the truth. It is certain at least in Amiurus that there is no aperture to the clavate cell such as the mucus-cell possesses, and their position indicates that lubrication of the surface is not their function. Occasionally a clavate cell mav be seen in sections protruding from the surface (Fig. 2), but such appearances are probably due to a defect in the superficial layers of the epidermis, and to the action of the hardening reagents. (g) Interepithelia/ Pigment-Cells. — I do not remember to have seen the source of these cells discussed ; it is possible that develop- mentally they may belong to the next group. In young stages the interepithelial pigment is very abundant, forming a continuous net- work of cells only interrupted by the cutaneous sense organs. In ithe adult skin the individual cells ai-e more independent, and o-en- 256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. erally considerably move l)ranclied and possessing more delicate processes than the pigmentary cells of the corium. (h) Non-Epithelial Elements. — Certain small bodies of nuclear appearance are met with frequently in the lower layers of the e))ider- mis surrounded by a scanty protoplasm. In size the nuclei agree fairly well with those of the amoeboid cells of the connective tissue. It is possible, however, that preparation with suitable methods might indicate the existence of interepithelial nerves, a matter which de- serves investigation since Pfitzner's^ discovery of the nerve endings in the epidei*mis of amphibian larva^. The following layers are present in the corium of Amiurits which does not appear to present any peculiarities in this respect not met with in other osseous fishes : — (a) The pigmentai-y or papillary layer. {b) The stratified fibrous layer. (c) The adipose layer, or subcutaneo\is connective tissue. (a) The Pigmentary Lai/er. — The palisade cells of the epidermis rest immediately upon' a ' basement membrane,' from which in liardened preparations they are readily detached, leaving behind them the membrane with a distinct jagged edge. The teeth of the latter are probably protoplasmic processes serving to connect the cells with the underlying structures similar to the 'intercellu- lar bridges ' of protoplasm of the higher cells. In the reticular connective tissue which follows the basement membrane are found the vessels and nerves destined for the supply of the epidermis. The pigment cells which are so abundant here are very different in form from the interepithelial pigment cells (Fig. 1) ; they are much larger and have short lobate pi-ocesses rarely connected in the adult with those of neighbouring cells. This layer would not deserve exclusively the name of pigmentary layer in young forms, where I find a second almost equally strong layer below the stratified fibrous layer, which disappears, however, in the adult with the exception of a few scatteretl cells. As the papilla? vary much in number in different regions of the body the papillary layer is necessarily modified by its projection into these structures which contain exactly the same elements, and are iMorph. .Jalir. VII. 7i'C. SENSK ORGANS OF AJIIURUS. 357 generally conical in form. The palisade cells radiate from the papillae jnst ?s they do from the corium itself, and the result is that where the papillae are fi'equent, the interpapillary epidermal cells look as if arranged in pockets between them. (Fig. 2). {b) The stratified fihroiis layer exhibits the disposition so well known in other osseoiis fishes — strong parallel bundles penetrated at intervals by vertical fibres. (c) Beneath the aliove is the adipose layer, which differs conspicu- ously both in thickness and in the character of the tissue in various regions, a diffei-ence chiefly due to the mode of arrangement of the fat therein. The adipose layer is separated from the underlying muscles by a membrane formed of bundles chiefly parallel to the sm-face of the skin. THE CHARACTER OF THE SKIN IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. Apart from the modifications induced by the presence of the cut- aneous sense-organs, the skin exhibits characteristic peculiarities in different regions. Thus, on the lips the clavate cells are absent, and the mucus-cells also few in number, the ordinary epidermal cells making up the rather exceptional thickness of the epidermis in this region. It is, perhaps, owing to the great numbers of sense-orgaus that these peculiar elements of the epidermis are absent, because elsewhere, in the immediate neighbourhood of sense-oi-gans, the same peculiarity is noticeable. The fibrous layer of the corium in the head is generally much thinner than that on the trunk ; on the other hand, the subjaceut adipose layer is thicker in the former than in the latter region. The epidei'mis is somewhat thicker on the sides of the head than on the upper and lower surfaces, while on the trunk the reverse obtains. This is apparently due to a greater number of clavate cells in both cases. Again, in the neighbourhood of the vent and urogenital papilla, the clavate cells are absent, or, at any rate, very sparingly represented. Important points of difference between the skin on the latei-al region of the trunk and that of the head may be gathered frona a comparison of Figs. 1 and 2. In the former region the papillse of the corium are few and scattered, and the clavate cells are generally only in a single layer. In the latter the papillae are so frequent that the epidermis looks on section as if it were arranged in pockets between them. There the clavate cells are in several layers, and they adapt themselves to the 258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. exigencies of their position, confined as they are by the papillae, so that they lie frequently transversely with their narrow ends extend- ing downwards. (Fig. 2.) The ventral surface is characterized by the total absence of pig- ment, which is true of the corium as well as of the epithelium. ABNOKMAL CONDITION OF THE SKIN. In two successive Springs I have observed certain tumours of the skin of a somewhat spongy appearance which do not appear to be confined to any particular region of the body but are commonest on the head and in its neighbourhood. I have, however, observed them on various parts of the trunk. It is jDossible that these are to be seen also at other times of the year, but, as they have only attracted my attention in Spring, I supposed at first that they might V»e somewhat similar to the ' Perlbildungen ' described by Leydig, or comparable to the more extensive epidermal changes which take place at the breeding time in many Oyprinoids. That they are not frequent is sufficient indication that they are not normally recurring structures ; and Prof. Leydig informs me that the l^istological change is not of the same nature as that which characterizes the ' Peilbildung.' Their appearance and the condition of their occurrence appear to me to exclude their being merely a reparative proliferation after a wound, and I have arrived at the opinion that we have in these tumours something similar to Epitheliomata. If a portion of such a tumour be placed in ^liiller's fluid over night and the epidermis pencilled away, the slender papillae stand up from the corium so as to form a sort of pile on its surface. The dissocia- tion of the epidermis takes place much more readily tlian in normal skin, partly owing to the fact that the superficial layers, especially that bearing the cuticular border, have disappeared, partly owing to infiltration into the interepithelial spaces. The altered papillae instead of being short, simple and cylindrical, may attain a length of over 1 mm., be much bi-anched, and sometimes flattened and palm- ately branched. For the nourishment of the increased epidermal surface, the vascular networks of the papillae are much richer, and an increased number of pigment cells are observable. Although the papillary layer of the corium is thus increased in thickness, the fibrous layer is much thinner than in the neighbouring unaffected parts of the skin. The nature of the cells, which fill up the inter- SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 259 papillary spaces, varies according to tlie part of skin where the tumour is attached. On the lips, for instance, where there are no clavate cells, the interpapillary spaces are chiefly occupied by spindle- shaped cells, but elsewhere, where clavate cells occur, these also are proliferated, being found in regular nests such as are represented in Fig. 3. Everything indicates rapid division, but no further peculi- arity has attracted mj attention noi- can I furnish any explanation of the appearance of these, no doubt, pathological growths. CUTANEOUS SENSE ORGANS. Within recent years important contributions to the knowledge of the sense organs lodged in the skin of Teleosts have appeared. Fol" lowing up his earlier researches Leydig^ has recently described those of Esox, Gasterosteus, Acerina and Lota. Solger- has studied the organs of the lateral line in various forms, and Bodenstein^ has given a careful description of those of Coitus gohio. I have not had access to Mei'kel's work* in which^ a sharp distinc- tion is drawn between two classes of cutaneous sense organs. Those which he terms ' End-knospen,' (end-buds), the ' beaker-shaped sense-organs ' of Ley dig, are lodged on papillpe of the cutis, and, although freely distributed over the skin and in the mouth cavity of Teleosts, are only found in the latter situation in higher vertebrata, where they reappear as taste-bulbs. To the second class belong the end-organs of the nerves, which are distributed to the lateral line and the ' mucous ' canals of the head. Merkel terms this second class '■ Nervenhiigel,' (nerve-hillocks), and points out their tendency to withdraw themselves for protection from the surface of the integu- ment within more or less completely closed canals, although, primi- tively, all nerve-hillocks are free and exposed to the surrounding medium (except for a protecting tube of cuticular origin), and in some species such ' free-organs ' are alone present. The end-buds, on the other hand, are always flush with the surface, certain of the ele- ments even projecting beyond it, and indeed may be carried beyond the general level of the inteofument where tactile sensibilitv is at its highest development, as in the Kentucky blind-fish (Amblyopsis), the Indian Cyprinoids recently described by Leydig, and, in fact, in 1 I. c. p. 22, et seq. a Areli.mik. Anat. XVIII., 3S4. 3 Zeit. wiss. Zool. XXXVII., 121. * " Ueber die Endigungen der sensiblen Nerven in der Haut der Wirbelthiere." o Vide IViedersheiiii Lehr. der vergl. Anat. S. 35S. 260 iPROrEEDlNGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the SilmoidK, where the barblets, like the pectinated i-idges on the head of AnibhfOpsis, are little else than carriers of such end-buds. F. E. Schulze had already pointeetweeu the dorsal and ventral divisions of the lateral musculature. SKNSE OKGANS OF AMIURUS. 263 The R. lateraUa oayi which supplies the sense organs of the canal is not situated in the subcutaneous tissue beneath the canal, but a little distance inwards between the two masses of muscle, a branch being detached to pass outwards to each nerve-hillock. In transverse sections through the canal, it is ol)vious that it is situated between the epidermis and the stratitied fibrous layei- of the corium, being lodged in what is elsewhere the pigmentary layer of the corium, although the pigment is practically absent in the neighbourhood of the canal. The epithelium of the canal which is quite low, except where it is transformed into the neuro-epithelium of the nerve, hillock, is continuous at the [)ores with the surface epithelium of the skin. An exceedingly delicate connective tissue surrounds the epithelium, separating it from the proper wall of the canal, which is formed in the neighbourhood of the pores of a dense connective tissue whose elements are disposed radially to the wall of the canal, but in the neighbourhood of the nerve-hillocks, and indeed for the greater part of the canal between the pores, by a much thinner layer of osseous substance, so disposed as to form a complete tube for the greater part of its course, but less complete towards its ends. No bone crorpuscles are present in the osseous wall of the canal, as is also noted by Leydig and Bodenstein for the forms described by them. I am unable to ideiitify the above-mentioned dense connec- tive tissue with cartilage as Bodenstein does, the corpuscles are quite similar to connective tissue corpuscles, and there is no matrix stain- ing in Bismarck brown, as is the case even in cartilage which has a minimum of intercellular substance. Separating the dense wall from the surrounding tissues is again a layer of reticular tissue belonging to that which I have above spoken of as the pigmentary layer of the corium. The lateral canal of the adult is approximately 2 mm. in transverse diameter ; in young specimens of two inches in length, hardly one- third of that. To study the course of the mucous canals in the head a series through young forms is most convenient, although approximately the direction of the canals may be seen also from the pores. ( Figs. 4, 5, 6.) The pores do not open directly into the canals of the head as they do into that of the lateral line, but by longer or shorter tubes — a circumstance noted also by Bodenstein for Cottus — and con- 26t PROCEEDINGS OF THR OANADIAX IXSTlTt'TE. sequeiitly the direction of the canals can only V)e aiiproximately determined by the study of the surfiice. Within recent years the study of the course of tlie mucous canals has receiA'ed an impetus from the discovery of their relation to the morphology of the skull, and accordingly it will be found detailed in Prof. McMurrich's paper on the osteology of this species. The canals in the head vai'y considerably in tljeii- dimensions ; their diameter is on the whole greater, sometimes twice as great as that of the lateral canal, and their walls are different in so far as the protective canal is formed of true osseous substance throughout. Except in respect to the greater size of the nerve-hillocks, the lining epithelium appears to be very similar. A ti-ansverse section through a nei-ve-hillock from a young specimen is represented in Fig. 7. The upper half of the tube is occupied by the ordinary epithelium, which becomes thicker as it approaches the neuro-epithelium, projecting inwards so as to lessen the cavity at this place. Two kinds of cells are to be distinguished iu the neuro-epithelium : sensoiy cells, short and oblong, occupying the inner half of the height of the epithelium, and indifferent cells (Stuetzzellen) occupying the whole height with a basal nucleus. The latter are more frequent at the point of passage into the ordinary epithelium. Fig. 8 represents a section of a macula acustica from a fish of the same age, drawn under similar conditions ; the resemblance of the two kinds of neuro-epithelia is particularly striking. In Fig. 7 the whole height of the neuro-epithelium is 37 fi, of the sensory cells 1-5 '5 ;i ; the nuclei of these are 6*5 //, of the indifferent cells 4 '5 ,'j.. The latter stain very densely in carmine, con- trasting with those of the sensory cells in this respect. Here and there between the indifferent cells are structures which are possibly nerve fibres in section. To return to the course of the canals in the head. It will be observed from Fig. 6 that the lateral line rises as it passes forwards towards the posterior upper angle of the gill-cover. Before reaching that a short tube is given off which opens in the skin over the ascendiiig process of the supraclavicle. Directly over the posterior upper angle of the gill-cover is another pore (Figs. 4 and 6) and in front of that another. At the plane of the latter the canals of the two sides communicate by the ' occipital commissure,' which again has two apertures near the middle line. The canal proceeds forwards from this plane, and again opens by a short tube over the articula- SENSE ORGANS OF AMlURUrt. JbO tion of hyomandibular. With Bodeustein I fitui no communication between the jji-incipal canal and that which is lodged in the }>reoper- culum and mandible opening with eight pores on either side. (FigvS. 5 and 6). From the hyomandibular articulation the canal passes forwards and inwards giving off the infraorbital branch which passes through the infraorbital chain of bones and terminates in the aduasal or antorbital bone, which is the most anterior of these. In its course the infraorbital canal first opens directly behind the eye, then by two pores below it and one in front, and finally by two in the same transverse plane behind but lateral to the anterior nasal aperture. The supraorbital canal may be regarded as the continuation of the principal canal ; immediately after giving off the infraorbital branch, a tube is directed backwards which opens behind the first infraor- bital pore, but near the middle line. From this point the canal inclines distinctly towards the middle line, opens by a pore in the plane of the eyes, by another medial to the posterior nares, and terminates by two pores which lie in the same sagittal plane over the medial division of the nasal sac. No further communicatiou takes place between the supraorbital and infraorbital canals of the same side, nor do the supraorbital canals of opposite sides meet in the middle line as in Cottus. The chief departure from Wieder- sheim's diagram (p. 359 I. c.) consists in the independence of the mandibular branch, and the absence of an anterior anastoujosis of the infra- and supraorbital branches — features which az'e common to Amiitrus and Cottus. On the other hand, Cottus differs from Amiurus in possessing one median and two lateral pores in the occi- pital commissure, and in the supraorbital branches meeting each other in the middle line before they give off a single backwardly- directed tube in place of the two noted above. (2). Accessory Lateral Organs. In various Teleosts the lateral line is not an uninterrupted canal as in Amiurus, but may be regularly interrupted as in Esox, two or more imcanaliculated scales separating those which are canaliculated. " As if in compensation, however," says Leydig\ " additional scat- tered canaliculated scales are present above and below the lateral line, to a certain extent accessory or rudimentary lateral lines, as 1 1, e. p. %i. 266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAX INSTITUTE. they have also been named." Such a contlition does not occur in Amiurus ; but other accessory protected nerve-hillocks are present, of which I can find no mention in the literature of the subject, unless they prove to be structures similar to those described by Leydig in the pike and bui'bot. He says of the former : "In addi- tion to those ' lateral organs ' which are present along the principal and accessory lateral lines they are disti-ibuted also elsewhere. On the trunk they are arranged in rows transverse to the long axis of the body. Each row may be composed of six to ten hillocks. In such spots the pigment of the skin only approaches so as to form a sort of boundai'y line, and the slime cells are likewise absent, so that the row of sense-hillocks has something of an isolated character, although not situated within a furrowed scale." " To give approximately the number of transverse rows of sense- hillocks is impossible, as I have not succeeded in recognizing them with the loup on the unwounded skin. Horizontal sections and microscopical investigations will be necessary to determine their number and arrangement." " On the skin of the head, e. g., the I'egion of the cheeks, beaker- shaped organs of the usual size ai-e to be found, as well as others which are not inferior in size to the nerve-hillocks of the lateral lines, so that it is indifferent what name we give them." "It is worthy of remark that the beakei'-shaped organs of the pike and the oi'gans of the lateral line on the trunk agi'ee essentially in their structure." Of Lota, Leydig says (p. 39) : " In the head region the pores of the mucous canals are also present, but more numerous, and although for the most part restricted to the course of the mucous canals, they are also to be found in spots far from any mucoiis canal. The same is the case on the trunk. If all of these points are actually pores of the system of mucous canals, the principal tubes of these must send off long branches in the corium to open in this manner. It is pro- bable, however, that the structures indicated are nothing but large beaker-shaped organs." As has been remarked above, Leydig does not sufficiently dis- tinguish in the above passage and elsewhere between 'beaker- shaped organs ' and * nerve-hillocks.' Amiurus possesses certain structures which I am inclined to believe are comparable to the scattered nerve-hillocks described by Leydig SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 267 in the pike, but perhaps more closely resemble the structures which, in Lnta, communicate with the outside by scattered i)ores. The structures to which I refer open by slit-like apertui-es very difierent in character from the ordinary pores. It is only in the fresh skin that they can be readily detected, and then it is owing to the tleficiency of pigment in the wall of the slit similar to that which occurs in the mouth of the pore, that they stand off from the rest of the skin. In size they vary considerably. Some are larger, otheis much shorter than the pores, but all of them are very much narrower. The most easily recognized are those which form a sort of accessory lateral line stretching obliquely downwards and backwards from the upper angle of the gill-slit. They are accompanied and probably supplied by a distinct branch of the Eamvs lateralis vayi, which runs along the line of junction of the lateral and ventral musculature, but another very distinct row is to be found almost parallel to the praeopercidar mucous canal, running down over the M. adductor mandibulce. Both of these are indicated by the dotted lines on Fig. 6. Again, in front of the dorsal fin similar slits occur, several very distinct behind the occipital pores, others less so, disposed transversely to the long axis of the body. I have no preparations of the adult skin which pass through these structures, but in a series through a young fish of two inches in length, made for a difierent purpose, I find certain detached flask- like sacs traceable through three or four sections, which communi- cate freely with the outside by apertures which are, no doubt, the above-mentioned slits. These sacs appear to be irregularly scattered, at any rate, as Leydig observes in relation to the pike it would be a work of some labour to map them out, but although often far re- moved in the trunk from the lateral canals, they appear to be alwavs grouped near these in the head. They are especially numerous in the neighbourhood of the nerve-hillocks, and are thus found especi- ally on the snout, below the eyes, on the cheeks and in the occipital region. I recognize the same structures also in the much younger forms whence Fig. 7 is taken, and as well in the one series as in the other, the difference between these sacs and the end-buds is very striking. Although the central-cells of the end-bud may be retracted, as noted above, so as to form a little recess in the mouth of the ' beaker,' the whole organ does not extend down to the corium but is lodged on a papilla extending half-way up through the epidermis, •20 26S HROCKEDINGS OF THE (AXLDIAX INSTITITE. the eml-l'ud consequently corresponding in length only to tlie other half. Otherwise with the sacs in question : the corium is hardly disturbed by their" presence : the V)ases of the epithelial cells wliich form the fundus of the sac resting on it at the same level as the ordinary palisade cells do. In preparations whei"e the epidermis is 110, a thick, the cavity of the sac is 80 /z deep, 18 ii wide in the ex- panded fundus, and 6 // in the narrow neck. Whether the aperture of the sac, which widens somewhat from the neck, be much larger than it is broad {i.e., slit-like), in the stage in question, I am unable to say, from the vertical sections at my disposal, but I am inclined to think not. The walls of the sac vaiy in thickness from without in- wards ; in the apeiture the ordinary surface epidermal cells are found, but the neck is bounded by cells, which are oval in outline where thev look into the cavity, (the long axis being disposed trans- versely to the long axis of the sac), while their flattened opposite ends convei'ge downwards towards the corium, being imbricated round the cells of the fundus like the scales of a bulb. The fun- dus is occupied by a nerve-hillock, the neui-o-epithelium of which is quite similar to that in. the ordinary canals, although, perhaps, only three or four of the short sensory-cells may be counted in one section. In my sections the hairs and bi'istles have not been preserved ; dif- ferent methods of prepai-ation would, of course, be necessary to de- termine further the histological peculiarities of the sacs both in the- young and adult. A.11 the cells that look into the sac, except those of the neuro-epithelium, have a distinct cl^ticular border, which is directly continuous with that of the superficial epidermal cells. In still younger stages than that described the cavity of the sac com- municates much more freely with the outside, and the characteris- tic flask-like shape has not yet been assumed. I have not studied the cutaneous ' nerve-sacs,' tirst discovered by Leydig, which replace ordinary free nerve-hillocks on the head m Ganoids, nor can I refer to Merkel's work in which these are accu- rately described, but from the account (based on Merkel's) which Wiedersheim furnishes of these,^ I am inclined to believe that we have here small ' nerve-sacs ' of a similar character. It will be observed, if the above description be comjiared with that which I translate from Wiedersheim, that the agreement between the struc- 1 L. c.,p. 361. SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 269 tuies ill question is close. "They are small, hardly over 1 mm. iu size, and are especially numerous on the under surface of the snout, round the eyes, and on the occipital and opercular regions. In the form of the histological elements they recall the ampullae of the Selachians more than the nerve-hillocks of the Teleosts. The epider- mis of the skin is folded into a minute sac, in the interior of which the stratified pavement epithelium gives place to a single layer of cylindrical epithelium with a distinct cuticle. Between the cylin- drical cells are found the hair-bearing sensory cells, shaped like those of the Teleosts, but closer together, as well as shorter and more pointed. Below each sac is a subcutaneous cavity filled with gela- tinous substance." [270] THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS (L.) GILL. BY J. PLAYFAIR McMURRICH, M.A. Frvfetfsor of Biology in the Ontario Agricultural College. [litad before the Canadia.ii InstitiUe, Fehruary the IGth, 188U-] Numerous statements regarding the osteology of the Siluroids have appeared from time to time in various works, such as the text- books of Stannius, Huxley, Claus, Wiedersheim, etc., and in many scattered papers, but, as far as I can discover, no complete study has been made of any one form. In the following pages I desire to re- count the i-esults of a detailed study of the various osteological elements of our common Canadian Siluroid, Amitcrus catus (L.) Gill. The description of the various portions of the skeleton will be accompanied by some notes on the development of certain bones, as far as it has been possible to ti-ace them, and a few remarks of a comparative nature. I.— THE CRANIUM. Viewed as a whole the ci'anium is extensively flattened, tapering from behind forwards in depth, so that a vertical longitudinal section would present a triangular aspect. Posteriorly are seen the five processes characteristic of the Teleostean skull, those of the pterotics, epiotics, and the median elongated supraoccipital spine. No well defined orbit is pi-esent, the postorbital process of the sphenotic being exceedingly small. A well marked antorbital process is, however, present, and in front of this at the anterior extremity of the skull two more lateral processes are formed by ossification of the lateral expansions of the ethmoid cartilage. On the upper surface of the skull are two median fontanelles ; the anterior is the broadest, and is bounded by the frontals behind, and slightly by the mesethmoid in front ; the posterior, which is long, tapering posteriorly, is bounded in front by the frontals, and posteriorly separates the supraoccipital into two halves, nearly as far back as the posterior surface of the skull. In accordance with the flattening of the skull, the canal for THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 271 the orbital muscles is exceeipheno- tics and sitpraoccipUaJ^. VI. Orbitosphexoid. 'PI. II. Fig. 2. Os.') A single bone forming the base and walls of the skull, the cavity of wliich is contracted in this region, expanding both in front and behind. It forms a passage or canal in which lie the olfactory nerves. Immediately above the horizontal poi'tion the bone is notched deeply anteriorly and posteriorly. These notches are made foramina by the articulating bones. Through the anterior one a vein passes, through the posterior, the optic nerve. The orbitosphenoid articulates in front with the ectethinoids and mespthmoids ; above with, the /rontals : behind with the alisphftwids and hasisphp.noid ; and below with the parasphenoid. 13. Mesethmoid, (PI. II. Figs. 1 t 2. MEth.) Forms the anterior boundary of the skull, and enters into the for- mation of the floor and the roof of the anterior portion which con- tains the olfactory nerves. It is the median ossification of the eth- moid cartilage of the young fish, and is one of the two bones in which the ossification of the cartilage is not completed in the adult, the inner surface of the bone being lined with it. In front it is notched, and spreads out into two horn-like processes which articulate below with THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMRRUS CATUS. !^/T the premaxillye. Its posterior articular surfaces, both above and be- low, are very much indented, split up, in fact, into a niimber of very- long osseous spicules, as in the parasphenoid and vomer, which fit in between corresponding spicules in the bones with which it articu- lates. Its articulations ai-e : — behind with the orbitosphenoid, fron- tals and parasphenoid ; below with the pnrasjjhenoid, vomer and premaxilloi ; latei'ally with the ectethmoids. 14. EcTETHMOiDS, (PI. II., Figs. 1 & 2, EEth ; Fig. 2, Ffr.) .\re the lateral ossifications of the ethmoidal cartilage. They are very deeply grooved on the inner surface for the olfactory nei'ves,. opening anteriorly by a lai'ge foi'araen, through which the nerves pass to the olfactoiy organ. Laterally the bone is produced into a strong slightly curved process, the antorbital process, and below this is a roughened surface for articulation with the posteinor extremity of the palatine. The lower and posterior surface of the antorbital process presents one oi" two foramina through one of which a branch from the deep branch of R. op/>thalmic7i,s trigemini passes. The upper surface of the bone is irregular, and presents many foramina con- nected with the mucous canal system. The ectethmoids articulate with the ?»e6-^//w»oi(/ interiorly ; ihefrontaU a,nd orbifosjihenoids be- hind ; the vovier below, and the palatine externally. Their upper surfaces also come into relation with two membrane bones, the nns-al and the orinasal, on each side, and the extremity of the antorbital process is in relation to the anterior ossicle of the intraorbital chain.. 15. Vomer, (PI. II., Fig. 2, Vo.) Is a nail-shaped bone, i.e., very much expanded in front, and ab- ruptly narrowed and tapering toward the posterior extremity. It lies below the mesethmoid and anterior portion of the parasphenoid,. with which it interdigitates. Certain membrane bones, developed in connection with the mucous canal system, may also be described as belonging to the cranium ; these are the infra-orbital s, the ruisals, and the adnasals. 16. Infra-orbitals. Extending from the frontals downwards behind tlie orbit, and lie- low it bending and running forwards to the ectethmoid, is a chain of bones lying in the dense fascia which covers the adductor niandibvlo' muscle. The first or superior is an almost square bone, the second 278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. long and slightly curved, lying directly behind the eye. It is fol- lowed by the third, almost straight and shorter than the second ; the fourth, fifth and sixth are straight rod-like bones, longer than the first or third, the sixth being the shortest of the three. All are trav- ersed by a channel in which lies a mucous canal, more or fewer pos- sessing an opening by which the canal communicates with the ex- terior. 17. Adnasal, pi. II., Fig. 1, An.) A small bone on either side, lying at the base of maxillary tentacle in the fascia covering the nasal region. It is really a continuation forwai'ds of the infraorbital chain, containing the same mucous canal, which opens by a pore on its surface. Tlie bone is slightly triangu- lar, with curved edges, the apex being directed forwai'ds. 18. Nasals, (PI. II., Fig. 1. N'a.) Are small bones in Aminrus, lying on either side between the ad- nasal and the mpsethmoid. They ai'e oblong in shape, and are trav- ersed by a channel for a mucous canal which opens by a pore on the outer edge of the bone. On comparison with other Teleostean (;rania, the almost entire absence of cartilage is a very noticeaV^le feature. Ossification has progressed so far in every part that it has replaced the original carti- lage entirely, except in the mes- and ectethmoid Since the cartila- ginous stage precedes in the ontogeny the osseous stage, one must ecialized types. It is found in forms in which much of the original cartilage persists, but in this form only a rudiment of it is pi'esent, indicating its presence in the ancestral forms of the Siluroids. Vrolik^ mentions a fiict in con- nection with the absence of the canal which receives confirmation in Amiurus, namely, that when such is the ease, the petrosum (prootic) is not pierced by the facial and trigeminus {Gachift, Silurus and Lophius). ' Vrolik.—St\xdit.n iiber die Verknoclierung u. d. Kiiodieo des .^cliJidels 'i. Tehogfei. Niedxr- and. Arch. f. Zool.— Bd. I., 1873. THb; OSTKOLOGV UF AM I LRUS CATUS. 279' As regards the variovis bones of the skull, they differ in no very essential points from those of Siliints ylanis, which have been de- scribed in general terms and for com))arative purposes only by Vro- lik. All the bones usually found in Teleostean crania are present with the exceptions of the opisthotic, intercalare, and parietals. The principal features are the presence of a well-ossitied and large mes- ethmoid ; the orbitosphenoid forming three sides of a canal for the olfactorius. thereby separating widely the eyes and acting as an in- terorbital septum ; the meeting of the prootics at the base of the skull ; and the absence of teeth in the vomer, a point of some im- portance, since certain closely related forms are provided with vom- erine teeth. Certain points in the development of the cranial bones merit a de- tailed description. In a young Amiurus, about 20 mm. in length, it was to be noticed that wherever a mucous canal appeared in trans- verse section a ring of bone suri-ounded and protected it, (PI. II., Fig. 8, MC), so that each of these caiials in the cranium was surrounded by an osseous tube. The bone was apparently deposited in mem- brane, and was evidently formed solely for the protection of the mu- cous canal. In cei'tain cases a bone, usually perforated for the emis- sion of a branch from the canal to a pore, became formed by a lateral extension of this osseous tube into the adjacent connective tissue. Instances of such bones are the infraoi'bital chain, the adnasals and nasals. The adnasals in i-eality, then, as was stated above, belong to the same group as the bones of the infraorbital chain, and may be described as the anterior ossicle of that chain, since it is formed in the same manner, and is traversed by the same canal. Sagemehl* proposes to name it the antorbital, but, since its function is not only to protect tlie enclosed mucous canal but also to protect the nasal region to which it stands in the same relation as does the nasal, I prefer the name employed. In the majority of cases, however, the osseous tube does not remain distinct but fuses with the subjacent bone, whether formed in mem- brane or perichondrally. In the case of the frontals, for instance, the mucous canal bone unites with the underlying bone formed in membrane, and in the sphenotic and pterotic (Fig. 8) a similar union occurs with the perichondral bone with which the ossification of the '^Sageniehl. — Beitriige zur vergl. Anat. der Fische. Das Cranium von Amia Calva. L., Morph. Jahrb. Bd. IX., 2nd Helt, 1883. 280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITCTE. cartilage of those regions commences. As regards the former it must be noted that there is apparently a portion (the thin ledge-like por- tion overlapping the anterior portion of hyomandibular) which is formed entirely by membrane. These two bones, then, are partly formed perichondrally, and partly from bone originating in mem- brane, and, accordingly, objections to the pterotic being considered equivalent to the other otic bones on account of its possessing a mu- cous canal, are groundless, since the pterotic and sphenotic are in reality cartilage bones for the protection of semi-circular canals, the imion of the membrane bone being secondary, and probably fol* the purpose of increasing the strength of the protective tube of the mu- cous canal. Schraid-Monnard' has recently pointed out the part played by the mucous canal in the formation of the pterotic, but does not seem to have noticed it in the case of the sphenotic. Sagemehl- also points out that the sphenotic postfrontal) and also the prefrontal (ectethmoid) in Amio. possess a membranous element, but does not recognize in the sphenotic that the membrane bone really belongs to the mucous canal. As regards the ectethmoid in Amiurvtf, it is truly perichondral, for the mucons canal which lies above it does not unite with it, but is separated from it by connec- tive tissue. As regards the other bones, the prootics, epiotics, alisphenoids, and basisphenoid, ai'e entirely perichondral in their formation ; the supraoccipital is partly perichondral and partly formed from a super- ficial plate of membrane bone, which unites with the subjacent perichondral ; the orbitosphenoid is mainly perichondral, but the cartilaginous orbitosplienoids do not meet in the middle line, but leave a space at the base of the skull bridged over by membrane continuous with the perichondrium, from which the median basal portion of the bone is developed. The ex-occipital, too. is mainly perichondral, the two ledges which roof in the sinus impar being, however, membrano\is in their origin. The basioccipital, however, presents sevei*al points for considera- tion in its development. In the young stage above mentioned, at the median line at the base of the skull is the notochoi'd, surrounded with some osseous tissue apparently developed from its sheath, as in the vertebra?. The lower angles of this ossification are continuous '^ ScKmid-Monnard. — Die Histogenese des Knochens der Teleostier. Zeit. f. wissZool Bd. XXXIX., 1883. ^Loe. cit. THK OSTEOLOGY OF AMIUKUS CATUS. 281 with a tliiu layer of bone extending across and becoming continuous with the outer perichondral layer of the exoccii)ital. This thin layer forms the floor of the cavity for the sacculus, and contains no cartil- age, so that the basioccipital at this stage is destitute of cartilage, and is composed of membrane bone in this (anterior) region. More posteriorly, however, behind the exit of the vagus and behind the cavity for the sacculus, the cartilage, continuous with that of the exoccipital, comes down towards the middle line as far as the chorda, which is still surrounded by bone. In an older stage (about 38 mm. in length) the cartilage present around the chorda and on the floor of the cavity for the sacculus is very noticeable. Opposite the exit of the glossopharyngeal, where no cartilage was to be seen in the younger stage, a lavge plate of it is present at floor of the sacculus- fossa, bearing upon its upper (inner) surface a mass of trabecular bone representing the ossification ai'ound the notochord in the younger stage. So opposite the foramen for the vagus (where no cartilage is present in the younger stage) the chorda has much diminished in size, and cartilage is to be seen at its sides below, separated from it by a layer of bone. Still more posteriorly the cartilage has the same i-elations as in the younger stage. It is thus seen that the older stage presents cartilage where in the younger stage only bone is present, apparently reversing the fact that the older the form the less the amount of cartilage present. How is this to be explained 1 Iir the young stage the sacculus occu- pies the place of the cartilage, being so large in compaiison to the size of the skull that there is room only for a thin layer of bone at the floor of the fossa, and a thin investment round the chorda. Later, however, the cranium grows more rapidly than tlie auditory apparatus, and then the cartilage always present posteriorly grows forward, and, by the ossification of its perichondrium, contributes largely to the formation of the basioccipital. The vomer and parasphenoid are formed in membrane and show no signs of teeth. Objections have been made by certain German authors to the application of the terms probtic, epiotic, etc., to the bones tleveloped in the cartilaginous eai--capsule. Vi-olik^ bases his objection to the tex'ms on the fact that other bones, for instance, the supra-, ex- » Vrolik. — Studien iiber die Verknocherung u. d. Knochen des Schadels der Tftleristei. Niedcr- landisches Archiv fui' Zoologie, Bd. I. 1873. 282 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN' INSTITUTK. ami basioccipital, also enter into the protection of the auditory apparatus, and that in Salmo (the only instance apparently observed by him ) the epiotic does not contain the exterior semicircular canal. The cartilage in which the occipital bones develop did not originally form part of the auditory case, the passage of the semicircular canal through the exoccipital and supraoccipital being secondary, as the hollowing out of the basioccipital for the sacculus certainly is, so that the names applied to these jtai-ts more truly indicate their origin. Parker's paper on the skull of the salmon,^ published later in the same year, states that, contiary to Vrolik's opinion, the epiotic does arise in connection with a semicircular canal, and shows also that a similar relation occurs in the pterotic, sphenotic, and opisthotic. In the Selachii the auditory capsule is at first quite distinct from the rest of the skull, with which it eventually fuses, and throughout life remains without connection with the cranial cavity except by the foramen for the auditory nerve. It lies at the sides of the skull, but does not extend back to the occipital region. In young Teleosts the cartilaginous capsule does not extend back as far as the occipital region, lying still at the sides. Now all bones formed in this car- tilaginous capsule are certainly entitled to be referred to the " otica " group. The anterior portion of this capsiile is ossified as the prootic (petrosum), a tract of osteoblasts outside the ampiilla of the anterior semicircular canal gives origin to the sphenotic (postfrontal), the pterotic (squamosal) arises over the ampulla and arch of the external canal, the epiotic (occipital externum) over the arch of the posterior canal, and the opisthotic (intercalare) over the ampulla of the same canal. All these bones lie in the region occupied by the cartilagin- ous auditory capsule, all are mainly what may be called cartilage bones/ and all hold a more or less definite relation to the included auditory apparatus. The terms prootic, sphenotic, pterotic, epiotic and opisthotic, applied respectively to the bones knotvn to German atithors as the petrosum, postfrontal, squamosal, occipitale externum, and intercalare, are pre- ferable, as indicating the true relations of these ossifications. Sagemehl in his paper on Amia^ makes many ingenious and 1 W. K. Parker.— Tha structure and development of the skuU in the Salmon. Phil. Trans., 1873. * Gegenbaur's objections to the pterotic (Ub. das Kopfskelet von Alepocephalus rostratus (Risso). Morph. Jahrb, Bd. IV., suppl., 1878,) have been shown above to be groundless. * Ante cit. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 283 valuable suggestions. His paper coming to hand after the previous descriptive portion had been written, explains the homology of the cavity described as occurring in the upper sui-faces of the pterotic, supraoccipital, and epiotic. He shows that a similar cavity, which he terms the tenijmral cavity, occurs in Amia between the bones and the primordial cartilage, is widely open behind, and contains a por- tion of the lateral musculature. In all probability the cavity in Amiurtcs is a rudiment of this temporal cavity of Amia, the original contents of which have vanished, their place being taken by fat and blood-vessels. The same author suggests that the occipital segment of the Teleosts has fused with it a certain number of vertebrae. He bases his asser- tions on the presence of such vertebrae, partially fused, in Amia, Folyptertos, Frotopterus and Lepidosteus. If such be the case, there is no trace of such a coalescence in Amitirios. A nerve certainly does pass out from the exoccipital behind the vagus, but in all its relations it is a spinal nerve, passing through the arch of the pre- ceding vertebra, as do the succeeding nerves. The occipital segment is certainly composed of many segments, one corresponding to each branchial branch of the vagus and to the glossopharyngeal, but beyond these there is no indication of any further segments in the basioccipital of Amiurus. II.— PALATO-QUADRATE AND MANDIBULAR APPARATUS. Under this head will be included a description of the maxillary and palatine apparatus, as well as of the chain of bones constituting the first postoral arcade, or, accoi'ding to views expressed elsewhere,^ the third cranial ai'cade, the trabeculse cranii being considered as representing the first arch, and the palatine as the second. 1. The Premaxill^, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Pmx.) Each is a small, somewhat arched bone, supporting five or six rows of teeth. They meet in the middle line, but are not united by suture. The upper surface of each bone rests on the under surface of the mesethmoid, and at the outer extremity each articulates with the maxilla. 2. The Maxilla, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Mx.) Depart very widely from the typical form. They are veiy much elongated rods, projecting at right angles to the sides of the skull, 1 On the Osteology and DeTelopment of Syngaathus Peckianus/Storer). Quart. Journ. Micr. «ci., N. S., Vol. XXIII., 1883. 21 284 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. but are capable of considerable movement, so that they may lie almost parallel to the longitudinal axis. At the base the bone forms a com- plete sheath for the cartilage which supports the maxillary tentacle, but this sheath is complete only for a short distance, the cartilage lyint^ in a groove in the posterior (inner) surface of the bone. At the base are two processes, a smaller posterior dorsal and a larger anterior ventral. The latter has a fascia firmly attached to it in such a way that, when the anterior extremity of the palatine is pushed forward it draws the same fascia, and by the tension thus produced the maxilla is abducted or pushed away from the sides of the skull. The bones possess no teeth. They have in relation to them the fre- inaxill'f' in front and below ; the palatines behind ; and the adnasals on the inner side. 3. The Palatine, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Pa.) Each palatine is a short, rod-shaped bone, extending antero-posteri- orly parallel with the long axis of the skull. The anterior extrem- ity abuts upon the maxilla, and the posterior lies in front and out- side of No. 4, and below the antorbital process of the ectethtnoid. 4. (PI. II., Figs. 1 & 4). This is a small almost round scale-like bone, lying behind and within the posterior extremity of the palatine. It is developed in the fascia of the anterior fibres of the adductor arcUs palatini muscle, and cannot be referred to the pterygoid series of bones. In a speci- men of the very closely related Amiurus nigricans, (LeS) Gill, it was quite absent. 5. Metapterygoid, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Jlfyt.) Is an almost square bone, lying directly behind No. 4. It is flat- tened and its upper posterior border is somewhat concave, aiding in the formation of the notch for the passage of the trigeminus to the superficial muscles. The anterior superior angle is attached by liga- ment to the orbitosphenoids. The bone articulates in front with No. 4 ; behind with the hyomandibular, and below with the quad- rate. 6. The Quadrate, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Qu.) Furnishes the articular surface for the mandible. It is triangular in shape, thicker behind and below, the upper portion being squa- mose. In a deep fossa, on the upper and posterior portion of the THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 285 bone, lies the cartilaginous syitiplecfAc, in a perfectly diied skull, the fossa being empty and an interspace occurring between the quad- rate and the hyoraandibular. The posterior border of the quadrate is contained in a gi'oove on the preopercidum ; behind and above it articulates with the hyommidihiilar ; and above and in front with the metapterygoid. 7. The Mandible, ,PI. 11., Fig. 1, Mn.) Consists of two portions, one on either side, united in the median line in front by ligament. Each portion again consists of four parts. These are as follows : — («) The dentary, constituting the anterior two-thirds of the bone and bearing numerous teeth. It is broader in front than behind, the teeth being arranged correspondingly, there being 5-6 rows anteriorly, tapering off to two rows posteriorly. The bone increases in height posteriorly, and is grooved on the inner surface for the reception of Meckel's cartilage and the articulare. The under surface presents six pores, openings for branches of the mucous canal which runs in this portion of the bone. (6) The artictdare forming the posterior high portion of the bone, and presenting the articular surface for the quadrate. It encloses Meckel's cartilage posteriorly. (c) MeckeVs cartilage, the remains of the primordial cartilaginous mandible. It consists of a rod of cartilage lying on the inner sur- faces of the dentary and articulare, its posterior portion being in- cluded within the latter. (d) The angularp, fvised completely with the articulare, being merely indicated as a small triangular nodule below the articular surface. The great size of the intermaxillaries and the limitation of the teeth to them, as far as concerns the upper jaw, are points worthy of notice. This is, of course, due to the specialization of the maxillse for another purpose ; with the decrease in size of the lat- ter was an increase of the former. The intermaxillae belong to that class of bones which are formed by the fusion of cement-plates of teeth. At first they are represented by a thin lamella of bone-bear- ing teeth, but by means of osteoblasts the ossification extends into the superjacent tissue in the form of trabeculse which are, in their histological details, similar to the cement plates. 2>^6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The maxillae are specialized for the support of the long maxillary tentacles. Instead of developing parallel to the axis of the skull, they extend outwards at right angles to it, their antero-posterior extent being very much diminished. They have, in fact, lost all the usual relations to the gape. That they do not possess teeth is not remarkable, since even in Esox they are toothless, though probably their origin was similar to that of the intermaxillae, i.e., the union of cement plates. The fact of their being moved by a special muscle lying below the adductor mandihulfp, instead of by the upper layer of that muscle, and also their relation to a nerve aris- ing from the trigeminus before its division into the superior and inferior branches, which seemed to indicate for them an angular nature, gave rise to a passing idea that they might not really be homologous with the maxillse of other Teleosts, and I was inclined for a time to compare them to the supramaxillaries described by Gegenbaur as occurring in Alejjocephalus and Clupea}. These pecu- liarities, however, do not properly belong to the bones but to the tentacle, and, since the relations of the bones are the same as those of the maxillae of other Teleosts, and their mode of development similar, there seem to be no reasons for departing from the usual idea that they are homologous with the maxillfe of other osseous fishes. The palatine bears no teeth. The first trace of bone is formed by the perichondral investment of the ethmo-palatine cartilage, this osseous layer having similar histological characters to the cement plates, there beirg evidently a close relation between these two forms of bone. The true pterygoids are all so-called cartilage bones, and therefore the bone described as No. 4 cannot belong to the series. Its true relations have already been indicated. The presence of only one pterygoid is, however, a peculiar feature. In the youngest stage which I was able to study, ossification had just commenced, and by means of sections^ it was seen that the anterior portion of the metapterygoid contained no cartilage, there being thus, apparently, an interval between the anterior extremity of the pterygo-quadrate '^Loe. cit. * 1 must testify to the good results obtained by the use of a saturated watery solution of Bi«- marck Brown. Not only are cartilage and bone admirably differentiated, but also muscle, nerve, glandular tissue, etc. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 287 and the posterior extremity of the ethino-palatine cartilages. Whether this is really so my specimens do not allow of absolute certainty, but make it a strong probability. Somewhat further back the cartilage is seen and may be traced unbroken back to the quadrate. The metapterygoid of Amiurus combines to a certain extent the relations of the ectopterygoid and entopterygoid, as well as that of the metap- terygoid of other Teleosts, but, since it is in direct relation to the quadrate, and performs the usual function of a butti-ess to the hyoni- andibular, I have preferred the last named term for it. The development of the dentary suggests some important thoughts. In a 20 mm. stage, (Fig. 9) Meckel's cartilage Mck) is present in its entirety. On its upper surface is a layer of tooth-bearing bone, in which the individual cement plates (j:p) are still to a lax-ge extent re- cognizable. At the sides and below is a layer of perichondral bone {pc), the cement plate bone passing into it without any line of demar- cation. In fact both varieties are identical, not only in their histolo- gical features, but also in theii- origin. Below the cartilage is a mucous canal {MG) enclosed in its osseous tube, which is united with the perichondral bone of the lower surface. In a 38 mm. stage tlie cartilage has almost disappeared, its place being occupied by trabecu- Ise of bone, osteoblasts lying in the interspaces. G.^he mucous bone has become quite united with these trabecular, and it is impossible to distinguish it. We have then in the dentary portion of the man- dible what may be termed three different varieties of bone — cement- bone, perichondral-bone (with which may be included the trabecular), and mucous-canal bone. All three, however, pass into each other, and are indistinguishable in structure and origin. The old division into primary and secondary ossification should be done away with since both varieties are in reality similar. III.— THE HYOMAXDIBULAR, HYUID, AXD OPERCULAR APPARATUS. The bones constituting these parts belong to a single ai-ch, the second post-oral, and are in relation to the seventh nerve. 1. The Hyomandibular, (PI. II., Fig. 1, Hmd.) Is a large almost quadrate bone, forming the upper part of the arch. It articulates above by a somewhat arched surface with the sphenotic and pterntic, and from the anterior angle of this surface a 288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. process passes forward and upward to touch upon the alisphenoid. Upon the inner surface of the bone, not far from the base of this process, is a foramen leading into a canal which traverses the hyomandibular from above downwards and backwards, opening on its posterior surface a little above the posterior inferior angle. This canal contains the R. hyoideo-inandihn.lo/ris facialis. On the outer surface is a flattened ridge overlying this canal, immediately behind which is the articular knob for the operculum, and extending forward at right angle to it is a ridge for the attachment of muscles. The hyomandibular articulates above with the pterotic, sphenotif-., and alisphenoid ; in front with the 'metapterygoid, and slightly with the qttadrate ; below with the symplectic cartilage and the preopemdvin ; and behind with the opprcv.lv/in. 2. The Symplectic Element does not appear to ossify. It i.s represented by a cartilage contained partly within the hyomandibular and partly within the quadrate, and filling up the space between these two liones. 3. The Hyoid May be described as consisting of five portions, as follows : — (a) The interhyal is represented by a small knob at the extremity of the arch which is connected by ligament to the inter- and preoper- culum, the hyoid thus being fixed at its upper extremities without articulation with the symplectic. (6) The epihyal is the upper triangular portion of the arch, separated from the succeeding portion by a deep notch above and below, and by a usually well marked articulation. (c) The ceratohyal is the longest portion of the arch ; broad and flat above, it becomes contracted towards its anterior extremity and again expands for articulation with the hypohyals. Both the cerato- hyal and epihyal bear branchiostegal rays on their lower borders. (d) The hypohyal is united with its fellow of the opposite side by ligament. The bone so denominated in Amiurvs is not simple, but has usually connected with it one or two accessory nodular bones, the number frequently varying on opposite sides in the same individual. {e) The urohyal is an impair bone extending back from the junc- tion of the hypohyals. Anteriorly it is partly divided into two rounded portions, from the extremities of each of which a ligament passes forward uniting it to the hypohyal. Behind is a thin flattened THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIUKUS CATUS. 289 plate, bearing on its upper surface a high longitudinal keel which bifui'cates anteriorly, each division continuing its way upon the anterior round portion, diminishing as it passes forward. Upon the upper surface of the flattened portion, and separated from each other by the median keel, are the two Injo-clavictdar muscles. 4. The Branchiostegal Rays, According to Jordan^ the typical number of branchiostegal rays for Aniiurus is nine, varying, however, from eight to eleven. The variation seems to occur even individuals, there being, for instance, sometimes nine on one side and eight on the other. In Ainiurus catus the usual nvimber was eight. They arise from the posterior (inferior) borders of the epihyals and ceratohyals, which possess notches for their articulation. The inner ones are short and rounded, but the outer (superior) ones are more or less flattened, the last two being quite flat and applied to the under surface of the operculum. In fact I would px-efer to state the number of the rays at seven, consider- ing the up[)er one as the suboperculum. 5. The Preoperculum PI. II., Fig. 1, PrOp.) Is more or less tirmly united with the hyomandibular and quad- rate. It is broader at the lower part than above, and is grooved on its anterior border for the reception of the lower part of the hyomandibular, the symplectic, and the quadrate. It is a continua- tion of the longitudinal flattened ridge of the hyomandibular and contains a mucous-canal, foramina upon its surface being for the exit of branches to the pores. Behind and below it rests upon the opevGuhim and intpropfrcidum. 6. The Operculum (PI. II., Fig. 1, Op.) Is a triangular scale-like bone, articulating with the knob on the hyomandibu.lar. Its apex is in relation to the interoperculum. 7. The Interoperculum (PI. IL, Fig. 1, I Op.) Is a short, stout bone, lying between the apex of the opei'culum and the posterior extremity of the mandible, with which it is united ■1 /oz-dart. — Manual of N. Amer. Vertebrates, Chicago, 187(5. 290 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. by ligament. It is also finiily united by ligainent to the upper por- tion of the epihyal. 8. The Suboperculum, As above indicated, is seen in the u)>perniost branchiostegal ray, which occupies exactly the position of the suljopercuhim in other Teleosts. The large anterior extension of the hyomandibular, whereby the metapterygoid is thrust forwards, is a chai'acteristic feature. On examining a young stage it is seen that this extension is not an ossification originally represented by cartilage, but is a growth for- wards of the perichondral bone of the hyomandibular cartilage into the membrane lying in front. This appears to have been originally due to the relations of the R. hyoideo-mandihularis N. facialis, the gi'owth being later on carried still more forwards for the attachment of muscles. This has resulted in the hyomandibular usurping the position of the metapterygoid. and its functions as regards the origin of the rmiftr. adductor mandihiiJfp. the longitudinal ridge usually being in the metapterygoid. The relations and origin of the opercular bones at one time aroused much discussion ; some light is apparently thrown upon these points by Amiurus, but, before enunciating any theory, it may be well to state briefly the ideas of earlier authors. The earlier writers, such as Geoffroy Saint-Hilaii-e and Spix. were inclined to consider the opercular bones as comparable to the auditory ossicles of the mammalia. Thus the former terms the preoperculum, the 'tympanal,' the operculum, the ' stapeal,' the suboperculum, the ' mall^al.' and the interoperculum, the ' inceal ;' while, accord- ing to Spix, the same bones are respectively, leaving out the subo- perculum, the ' marteau,' the ' enclunie,' and the ' ^trier.* Cuviei*'^ denies these relationships, saying " plus on examinera les pieces operculaires, plus on se convaincra que ni leurs connexions enti-e elles et avec les autres os, ni les muscles qui les mettent en mouve- ment, ne presentent le moindi-e rapport avec les osselets dont il s'agit." Neither deBlainville or Agassiz believed in the auditoiy theory, the former believing the opercular bones to belong to the 1 Cuvier et Valenciennes.— Bif^i. nat. des Poissons. Pans, 1828. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 291 subcutaneous system, and the latter to the system of the branchios- tegal rays. Hollard^ sums up his observations thus, " En d'autres termes et pour nous rdsumer, il resulte pour nous de cette ^tude que le battant operculaire des Poissons se divise, quant k sa signification anatomique. entre le squelette normal et un squelette suppldraentaire et cutane ; que I'interopercule appartient au premier, comme naissant et se developpant dans le premier ai'c visceral ; qu'il occupe la m§me place que I'enclume des mammifdres ; qu'enfin I'opereule et le sous- opercule, loin de lui faii-e suite, loin de pouvoir §tre assimiles aux autres osselets de I'ouie ou a vrais appendices, sortent des limites du nevro-squelette, non, comme le voulait Cuvier, a titre de pieces sans analogues mais en se rattachant au developpement si general et si considerable des expansions t^gumentaires des Poissons." Oweii^ does not commit himself definitely either way, considering them merely appendages to the " tympano-mandibular arch," but however implies a certain amount of credence in the auditory theory, by referring them to the mandibular rather than to the hyoid arcade. Lastly, Gegenbaui^ suggests that the interoperculum was originally a. part, not of the hyoid skeleton, but of the mandibular. It is now a recognized fact that the homologues of the auditory os- sicles are not to be looked for in the opercular bones, and we have remaining the theories that they are a subcutaneous system, a part of the branchiostegal system, and that the interoperculum is a part of the mandibular arcade. In Amiurus they seem to belong to the branchiostegal system, with the exception of the preoperculum. This is formed round a mucous canal, and is one of what may be called the mucous canal series, to which also the infraorbital ossicles belong. Functionally it is not one of the opercular bones but protects the in- cluded mucous canal. The suboperculum is properly a bone lying below the lower edge of the operculum. This is the position it holds Esox, also in Salmo, but in the latter case it is increased in size, and projects largely from under the operculum. In both these forms also it lies on the inner side of the interoperculum. In Amiurus, what is usually considered the upper branchiostegal ray bears exactly the same relations. Shortly behind its attachment to the epihyal, ^ Hollar d.- De la signification de I'appareil operculaire des Poissons. Ann. des Sci. Nat.> 1864. * Owen.— On the anatomy of the vertebrates. Vol. I., London, 1866. 3 Loc. rit. 292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. it lies on the innei- surface of the interoperculuiu, and its outer por- tion lies below and slightly behind the operculum. Accordingly as above stated, it may be considered as equivalent to the suboperculum of other Teleosts. The operculum and interoperculum seem to have been originally a single ray, which dividing transversely, gave rise to the two bones. They are directly in apposition in Amiurus, the lower extremity of the operculum being of the same size as the upper (pos- terior) extremity of the interoperculum. With regard to the attach- ment of the latter to the articulare, it may be stated that it is just as fii-mly attached to the epihyal, which, however, it overlaps, and it is possible that it may, as Gegenbaur suggests, be the only remaining ray of the mandibular arch. However, be that as it may, it is evi- dently an appendage of a visceral arch, and as such, is homologous with a branchiostegal ray. My conclusions as to the homologies of the opercular bunes are as follows : — The preoperculuin isdevelopud around a mucous canal arid does not belong to the same category as the other boties. The suboper- culum is a modified b rancliiostegal ray, and the operculum atid inter- operculum correspond to anotJicr r(i,y which has become divided transversely. IV.— THE BRANCHIAL APPARATUS. This consists of five arches, each arch consisting of a number of bones, the upper poi'tion of each b^ing bent at an acute angle, so as to lie in a plane almost parallel to that of the lower portion. In other words, the lower portions of the arches lie on the floor of the pharynx, the upper portion in its loof. In a typical arch five por- tions are present. Below in the middle line, extending between the arch and its successor, is an impair bone, the copula. Opposite the anterior end of the copula is a usually short portion —the liypobran- chial, on the outer side of which lies the ceratobranchial, usually the largest of the branchial elements. Between the last-named portion and its successor, the epibrnnrhial, the bend oceui'S, so that the ex- tremity of the arch, formed by a usually small fharyngo-branchial, lies near the median line of the roof of the pharynx. In Amiurus (PI. II. Fig. 3) all the arches do not possess the typi- cal number of bones. Only two copula? are present, i. e., those be- tween the 1st and 2nd (cpi), and 2nd and 3rd arches {cp2) ; between the 3rd and 4th a cartilage {cp^.^) is present, with the posterior ex- THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 293 tremity of which the ceratobranchial of the 5th arch articulates, and which probably represents the conjoined copulse of the 3rd and 4th and 4th and 3th arches. Similarly osseous hypobranchials are not present in all the arches The 1st and 2nd possess them {Hhi\ and Hbr^) in the form of their round bones, but in the 3rd and 4th (Hhr^ and ffh>\) they remain cartilaginous, and in the 5th appear to be wanting. Oeiatobranchials {(Jbr^,^\ are present in all the arches ; tliey are long slightly curved bones, grooved on the under surface for the reception of the bi-anchial vessels and nerves, and carry the majority of the gill-leaflets. The ceratohyal of the 5th arch {Gbr^) however, departs from the normal type. It is flattened from side to side, is not grooved below, has no branchial leaflets, but bears on its upper edge an oval plate of bone possessing a large number of teeth ; this is usually known as the Itifpo pharyngeal (Phi). The epibran- chials (Fig. 4, Ebl\.^) also bear gill-leaflets to a certain extent, at least those of the 1st and 2nd arches do. These resemble slightly the ceratobranchials, but do not possess so deep a groove on the vmder surface, being flattened. From near the middle of the posterior border of the 3rd epibranchial a strong process {pro) passes back- wards, inwards and upwards, serving for the attachmeiit of muscles. The 4th epibranchial (Ebr^) is veiy broad towards its inner extremi- ties, while the 5th is wanting. The pharyngobrauchials are rudimen- tary also. The 1st is wanting or represented only by cartilage ; the 2nd [Pbr.^) acts as a copula between 2nd and 3rd epibranchials ; the 3i'd (Pbr^) has a similai- relation to the 3rd and 4th epibranchials ; while the 4th and Oth are wanting. Thus none of the elements of the upper moiety of the 5th arch are present. Lying on the under surface, and attached to the 3rd pharyngobianchial and the inner ex- tremities of the 3rd and 4th epibranchials, is a round osseous disc bearing numerous teeth — the epipharyngeal (PhS). To the anterior edges of the cerato- ,and epibi'anchial, and to both the anterior and posterior edges of some, are attached a number of small rays equiva- lent to the branchiostegal lays of the hyoid ai-ch. These are readily removed from the arches along with the soft parts. The only points to be noticed here in connection with the branchial arches are the i-elations of the epi- and hypopharyngeals. These bones are not inherent parts of the branchial arches, as is frequently supposed, but have become secondarily united to them. This is indi- cated by the fact that they do not belong to the same arches ; the 294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. hypopharyngeal being attached to the 5th arch, while the epipharyn- geal is in relation to the 3rd and 4th arches. A stronger proof of this fact, however, is ati'orded by a study of the development of these bones. They are then seen to be originally quite distinct from the adjacent cartilaginous branchial arches, and to be formed by the union of the cement-plates of the teeth which they bear, and by a subsequent formation of osseous trabeculap by osteoblasts. Their morphological significance is not hard to determine. They represent the remains of the dermal denticles which originally lined the mucous membrane of the buccal and branchial cavities, and which are still to be seen in those situations in certain Selaclii^. v.— THE SPINAL COLUMN. With legard to this portion of the skeleton, the greatest interest centres round the first four vertebrje and their arches, which have become very much modified in accordance with the development of a series of ossicles within the auditoiy apparatus and the air-bladder. These anterior vertebrfe being thus intimately connected with the auditory sense-organ, will, "with greater appropriateness be described in detail in the portion of this work, by Professor Wright, referring to that structure. It will be necessary, however, to denote here briefly the modifications undergone. The body of the first vertebra is fully formed, but its transverse processes are rudimentary, while its dorsal arch forms the stapes of either side, and a jjair of inter- crural cartilages present in front of it, are converted into the claus- tra. The body of the second vertebra has entirely disappeared, and become fused with the third, the fusion being indicated by two nutritive foramina at the base of the conjoined vertebra?. Its trans- verse process is wanting, and its doi'sal arch becomes converted into the rudimentary incus. The body of the third fuses with the second and fourth ; its dorsal ai-cli is normal, and its spine is represented by the anteriorly directed pi'ocess, which, arising from the broad flat plate mentioned below, extends forwards and articulates with the supraoccipital and exoccipitals ; and its transverse process is trans- formed into the malleus. The fourth vertebra is fused with the third and fifth ; its transverse process is the broad plate extending out on either side in this I'egion, and its doisal arch is the backwardly pro- 1 0. Hertwig Deber das Zahnsystem der Amphibien. Arch, fiir mikr. Anat. Bd. XI. supple- ment 1874. See also Jenaische Zeits.Oi. Bd. VIII. 1874. THE OSTKOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 'J95 jecting process froui that [)late. The fifth is of the normal type, all its parts being present, i)ut its l)ody is united anteriorly with that of the fourth. The bodies of the 2nd-;>th are deeply grooved below for the i-eception of the aorta. The bodies of the succeeding vertebrae as far back as the com- mencement of the tail tin are all similar in appeai-ance. They are of the usual piscine amphiccelous type, but they are very much flattened at the centre of their length from above downwards, and a strong longitudinal ridge extends along the lateral surface of each, increasing the appearance of flattening. In the adult the bodies, as well as the arches, are thoroughly ossitied, no notachord remaining in the centre of the bodies. In a stage incompletely ossitied it may be seen that the notachord is contracted very much vertebrally, ex- panding rather suddenly as one approaches either extremity of the body, and resuming its full uncontracted size. The lateral ridge seems to be formed by an extension of the ossification into the adher- ent connective tissue along the lateral line of the column. On the upper and lower surfaces of each centrum, on either side of the middle line, is a ridge, so that viewed laterally the vertebrae do not appear extraordinarily flattened. Posteriorly in each vertebra, i. e., between the attachment of successive arches, these ridges increase in height, thus forming a protection for the spinal cord or aorta between the arches The arches are completely ossified, and are firmly anchylosed with the bodies. They unite with the anterior portions of the bodies above and below, enclosing in either case the spinal cord or the aorta. In the more anterior dorsal arches the anterior elevations of the dorsal longitudinal ridges of the centra articulate with the posterior border of the preceding arches, but posteriorly no such articulations obtain. All the dorsal arches, and the haemal arches also in the tail region, are surmounted with long backwardly dii'ected spinous processes ; those of the 5th-9th dorsal vertebrae inclusive being- bifid for the reception of the interspinalia of the dorsal fin. The majority of the vertebra? of the trunk region have theii- lower arches projecting at right angles from the centrum, forming the transverse pi'ocesses ; with the 6th-14th of these ribs (ossifications of intermuscular septa) articulate, the upper surfaces of their proximal portions being in contact with the under surface of the distal ex- tremities of the transverse processes. The last two vertebrae of the 296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. trunk hear no ribs. The hsemal ai-ches of the last extend almost directly downwards, parallel to each other, and are connected about the middle of their length by a transverse bridge, above which runs the aorta. The first tail vertebra has the haemal arches firmly united below, but somewhat broadened so as to separate, as it were, the trunk and tail regions. The i-euiaining hsemal arches are exactly similar in ajipearance to the neural ai-ches of their vertebrae, possess- ing long spinous processes, certain of which assist in supporting the interspinalia of the anal fin. There is then in Amiurus a gi-adual passage from the transverse processes of the trunk region to the hpemal arches of the tail, and thus a strong argument in opposition to the view that the haemal arches of the tail represent the trans- verse processes plus the ribs of the trunk. The typical features are present in all the vertebrae posteriorly until one comes to the region of the caudal fin (PI. II., fig. 5 ). Here some modifications occur. The neural and haemal processes of the sixth vertebra (counting from the tail) are the first that are in I'ela- tion to the caudal fin rays. They do not, however, sufier any modi- fication, and are firmly coalesced with the centrum. So with the arches of the fifth. The spinous process of the lower arch of the fourth (7/4) is somewhat expanded, and that of the third (^3) still more so, while that of the second {H.^) forms a very broad plate, from the anterioi* border of which a thin plate extends to the poste- rior edge of the third arch. The dorsal arches (Nf^_^) of these vertebrae present no modifications. The last vertebra is, however, specially interesting. Its upper arches, instead of projecting upwards and backwards, are directly perpendicular to the axis of their centrum. The spinous process {Ni) is not coalesced with their upper extremities, but forms a dis- tinct piece connected with them by ligament. The lower arch {H^) is fused with a small lateral process projecting from the lower portion of the body, and expands to a broad plate in apposition with the preceding and succeeding arch. The body is somewhat modified also, wanting the lateral longitudinal ridge and the fossfe above and below it, so characteristic of the other vertebrae. The notochord extends upwardly and backwards from the last vertebra almost at an angle of 45°. No further trace of centra are to be perceived nor of dorsal arches, but the presence of several coalesced vertebrae in this terminal filament seems to be indicated by THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMITRl S CATUS. 297 the presence of sevei'al hfemal arches. Of these there are in all six, the four lying iinmeiliMtely below the tenninal Jilauient of the noto- chord being separated from the otlier two by a distinct interval, cor- responding to the longitudinal axis of the body. The lowest (A) (i.e., the one posterior to that of the last vertebral centrum) is fused with the posterior inferior portion of the last vertebral centrum, and bears at its base a slight lateral ridge. It expands very much towards its extremity, being the broadest of all these fin-bearing arches. The next four {B, C, D d: E) arise from the posterior surface of the last centrum, being fused with it. They are triangular in shape, expanding posteriorly, and diminishing in size from below upwards. The last {F) {i.e., that immediately below the notochord) is small, and partly enclosed by the lateral bones enclosing the notochord. It seems to arise from these structui-es near their base. We have thus six hfemal arches which are well develo]3ed, and specially modified for the purpose of supporting the rays of the caudal fin, the centra and upper arches corresponding to them having become aborted, or perhaps the centra are represented by the last body, sevei'al having fused to form it. Lotz' has investigated the structure of these vertebrae in Cyprinoids and other fishes, and in the former thei'e appears to be an ai-rangement very similar to that of Ammrus. The specialization however does not seem to have pro- gressed quite so far. In Barbus the third or second vertebra bears two dorsal arches. The spinous process of the last dorsal arch is similar to that of Amiurus, Lotz naming the free spinous process a ' falsche Dorn,' believing it to be either a part of the true spinous process or a free tin-bearer. I prefer the former hypothesis. The three lower arches, which have no distinct vertebi-se, are fused with the last centrum, as in Ar/iktras, but the upper four are independent. It would appear from this that the last vertebral centrum really consists of three fused centra, those of the four upper htemal arches having become aborted, the fusion of these arches with the last centrum in Amiurus being secondary'. All these lower arches are tipped with cartilage, but there are no intervening cartilaginous pieces as in Barbus. Extending back from the posterior superior angles of the last cen- trum on either side of the notochord filament are two bones {If^S) 1 Lotz. — Ueber den Bau der Schwanzwirbelsaule der Salmoniden, Cyiirinoiden, Percoiden und Cataphiaoten. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. XIV., 1864 298 PKOCEKDlXGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTlTTTE. fused with the centrum below and protecting the terminal filament. Lotz terms these the ' grosse Deckstiicke,' and believes them to be ' Bogenstiicke des letzten Wirbels.' With this homology I cannot agree, for two reasons. Firstly, the spinal chord does not stand in the same relation to these bones as to the arches of the other verte- brae ; it does not pass between them but lies in front (above) them in the groove which they form ; posteriorly the rudiment of the ner- vous tract is partly enclosed, but this arises from the upward growth of the bone posteriorly, and does not correspond to a passage between two arches. Secondly, these bones are not preformed in cartilage, as their development shows, but are formed in membrane, thus belong- ing to a different category to the arches, which are all pi-eformed in cartilage. These two facts appear to me to dispose of the ' Bogens- tiicke' theory, and the question arises as to what is their true homo- logy. They seem to correspond both in development and relations to the dorsal longitudinal ridges of the vertebrae. They are direct con- tinuations of these ridges which jjrotect but do not surround the cen- tral nervous system, and are developed by an ossification of mem- brane. To recapitulate, then, the homologies of the modified ventral parts of these posterior vertebi-aj : The free spinotis pi'ocess of the second vertebra is the true spinous process of the arch of that centrum. The last centrum consists of three coalesced vertebra', the upper arches of which ha,m disappeared. The four succeeding centra and their upper arches have become aborted, leaving only the Iwpnial arches to represent them. The protecting bones on either side of the terminal Jilament of the chorda are continuations of the dorsal longitudinal ridges of the vertebrce, and have no relations with the arches. VI.— THE DORSAL FIN. The dorsal fin adheres, to a certain extent, to the type of the im- paired tins, consisting of fin-rays ossified in membrane, supported by interspinalia, which are preformed in cartilage, but the anterior rays and their interspinalia are modified for the formation of an organ of defence capable of fixation in an erected condition. Anteriorly there is a small ossification lying in front of the large plate for the support of the defensive spine, united to it by ligament only and situated immediately below the skin. The plate with THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 299 which it articulates extends backwards as far as the ]»osterior surface of the defensive ray, which it supports. It is of a triangular shape, broader behind than in front, and perforated by three foramina. The two anterior are small, and situated one on either side of the middle line, giving passage to the muscles which erect the small modified ray lying in front of the defensive spine. The third is large, but is divided into two parts by the extremity of the interspinal which sup- ports the small modified ray just mentioned. This is shaped like an inverted U or a horse-shoe, and rests astride of the extremity of the corresponding interspinal, the two limbs passing down on either side through the large posterior foramen. When erected it slides down over the anterior surface of the inter- spinal, and the limbs then come into apposition with the preceding expanded interspinal, so that it cannot be depressed until it is drawn upwards again to its original position. The fixation is due to this arrangement, the defensive ray being attached by a strong ligamen- toiTS band to the extremity of this modified ray. The interspinal of this horse-shoe ray is partly enclosed by the backwardly projecting and strong spinous process of the fourth vertebra, and additional strength is given by its union, by means of a thin osseous plate^ to the succeeding interspinal. Its extremity is smooth and is divided by a slight transverse ridge into two parts, the posterior of which is a continuation of the osseous plate between it and the succeeding inter- spinal, originally formed in membrane, and, secondarily, united to the bone developed round the cartilaginous interspinal. The succeeding ray is the defensive one. It is completely osseous, slightly curved, and terminates in a sharp point. Its base is ex- panded and presents three processes — two lateral, which rest on either side on the horizontal plate already described, and a ventral one which fits into a slight depression immediately behind the extrem- ity of the interspinal of the preceding ray. Immediately above this ventral process is a perforation, which, when the ray is erected, re- ceives the extremity of the preceding interspinal, and above this per- foration is a rough surface for the attachment of the ligament by which the ray is united to the preceding one. The interspinal cor- responding to this ray is situated in the cleft extremity of the spin- ous process of the fifth vertebra, and is united with the preceding interspinal by the thin plate already described ; above it expands 22 300 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. and unites with the horizontal plate forming the surface on which the lateral processes of its ray rests. The succeeding rays and their interspinalia are not modified. The latter, five in number, lie below in the cleft extremities of the spinous processes of the 6th- 10th vertebrae. The rays ai-e slightly expanded and osseous below, but towards the extremities are horny, trans- versely striated, and branch dichotomously. A study of the development of these bones throws light on their homologies. The horizontal plate which supports the defensive ray, and the anterior prolongation of it, are formed in membrane (Fig. 10, hp). The small ossicle lying in front of it is represented at an early stage by a rod of cartilage, (/s^^.l), lying almost in the longitudinal axis of the body. The small n -shaped bone is also developed in membrane, the bone on which it rests being partly formed in cartil- age, {Is2).'2) and pai'tly (i.e., the posterior part) in membrane. The defensive ray and its successors are formed in membrane, and its interspinal (/sp.3) and its successors are preformed in cartilage. These, then, being the facts, one must refer all those bones which are pre- formed in cartilage to the category of interspinals, and all those formed in membrane to that of rays. Accordingly, the anterior bone, which is united by ligament to the horizontal supporting plate, is the first interspinal, which early (even while completely cartilagin- ous) has lost its typical position, and the horizontal supporting plate, the anterior portion of it at any rate, is to be considered the ray corresponding to it. The interspinal enclosed within the strong fourth spinous process is then the 2nd, the small ossicle which it supports being the 2nd ray. This second interspinal has a certain amount of membrane united to it ; the lateral flanges which give a point d'appui for the limbs of the 2nd ray, the thin plate uniting it with the 3rd intei'spinal, and the portion of its extremity behind the slight groove (in reality a continuation of the thin plate), being of this nature. The third interspinal is also formed partly of cartilage and partly of membrane-bone, the portion of the horizontal plate in which the 3rd ray rests probably belonging to tlie membranous por- tion of the 3rd interspinal, which has coalesced with the modified 1st ray. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 301 The parts of the dorsal fin may be tabulated as follows : — Ist Interspinal Ossicle in front of horizontal plate. Ist Ray Anterior part of horizontal plate. 2nd Interspinal Only slightly modified. 2nd Ray The n -shaped bone. Srd Interspinal \ ^^^S^^h modified ; upper portion forms ^ ( the broad surface for support of 3rd ray. 3rd Ray The defensive spine. The succeeding interspinalia and rays are normal. VII.— THE ANAL FIN. The anal fin is constructed on the normal type, consisting of 21-22 rays, osseous at the base, but horny a slight distance outwaz'd. The interspinalia are completely osseous, and are not quite reo-ular in their arrangement to the haemal processes of the vertebrae, two interspinalia occurring at irregular intervals in the S}iace between two processes. VIII.— THE CAUDAL FIN. The caudal fin is also normal. The rays here are also osseous at ■the base. Those in the centime are shorter than those above and below, and a few short rays run forwards a short distance above and below upon the body. The adipose fin, containing no osseous skeleton, belongs more pro- perly to the tegumentary system. IX.— THE PECTORAL ARCH AND FIN. The pectoral arch in Amiurus has undergone much modification and has many points of difierence from the arches of such forms as Salmo and Esox. It consists of two principal divisions, termed by Gegenbaur the primary and secondary shoulder-girdles. In the majority of the Teleosts the latter is much the larger, the former forming as it were a mere appendage to it. In Amiurus this is not exactly the case, for the primary girdle, or at any rate an extension of it, forms a large part of the pectoral arch. All parts of the arch are completely ossified, and considerable modifications are present in relation to the peculiar articulation of the fin ray. The secondary shoulder-girdle consists of two pieces. The upper or supraclavicula (Fig. 1 SCI) is a T-shaped bone, of which the upper portion of the transverse limb articulates with the pterotic 302 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. and epiotic, and almost occludes the opening of the temporal fossa, while the extremity of the vertical limb articulates with the side of the basioccipital, and a process on its ventral surface near its junc- tion with the transverse limb articulates with the stout transverse process of the fourth vertebra. The upper portion of the lower division of the secondary girdle lies in the deep groove between this process and the extremity of the lower portion of the transverse limb. The lower piece consists of two portions coalesced, which may be denominated the mesoclavirula (Fig. 6 MCI) and infraclavicula (I CI), no trace of the constituent parts, however, persisting. Above are three processes. The anterior (a;;) which projects directly upwards, fits into the deep groove mentioned above ; the median (mp) pro- jecting backwards and upwards, lies behind the lower portion of the transverse limb of the supraclavicula, and prevents excessive down- ward and backward motion of the arch ; and the inferior (ip), which projects directly backwards, lies quite free immediately below the the skin, its outer surface being roughened by minute tooth-like tubercles. The axis of this portion is almost directly vertical, below, however, the bone curves inwards, becomes horizontal, and is united by ligament with its fellow of the opposite side. The upper surface of this portion, which is thin, is smooth. The under surface presents several points for examination. Just below the base of the inferior process mentioned above is a deep semi-circular groove (sg), in which the correspondingly shaped basal process of the first fin-ray runs. The ridge which bounds this on the outside is continued downwards and then inwardly on the under surface, and with a corresponding though slighter parallel ridge forms a groove. With the posteiior ridge the anterior edge of the coracoid (cor) articulates — a broad process (br) extending across to the anterior ridge near its outer extremity, and thus forming in this region a canal. By the expanded outer and posterior portion of the coracoid overlapping the under sur- face of the coalesced meso- and infi-aclavicula in that region, and not further inwards, another canal is formed, which unites with the one already described, both containing parts of the same muscle. No post-clavicula is present. The two pieces, coracoid (cor) and scap^da (sc), of which the primary girdle is originally formed have also become quite coalesced. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 303 The foramen (for), however, which usually occurs between them, is still pi'esent and indicates that while the scapular portion is very small the coracoid has reached a very great degree of development, meeting with its fellow in the middle line, and being united to it by sutural union. This coracoid has been described (by Huxley for instance) as the clavicle, but this must be a mistake, for in a well macerated skeleton, this portion separates perfectly from the portion in front, the clavicle, showing that these two are not the same. If the extension of the coracoid, towards the middle line, seen, for instance, in the Gadulce, be continued still farther, the ain-angement which obtains in Amiurus will result. The upper surface of these coalesced bones presents no point worthy of special notice, but on the ventral surface of the outer portion the following points may be noticed. First of all there is the bridge-like process (br) which extends over to the anterior ridge on the under surface of the infra- clavicular and at its base a high ridge (r) is to be seen which dimi- nishes rapidly as it passes inwards, and is soon lost. Slightly exterior to this is a small rod-like process {rp), which articulates with the inner basalia of the fin, and from its base a fine spicule of bone {s})) passes transversely across to the posterior margin, its anterior portion giving an articular surface to certain of the radialia. This spicule forms an arch through which a muscle runs and just below its anterior point of attachment is the foramen between the scapular and coracoid portions. From the arrangement of the articulations of the fin, and from general characters, I am inclined to refer to the scapula, the thin triangular portion, which is well marked oflf, and whose limit on the exterior edge would be a line drawn from the base of the rod-like process for the inner basale. The spicule-like arch belongs probably to the coracoid portion. The fin consists of two principal rows of elements. The proximal row consists of three elements, two osseous and one cartilaginous. The posterior element (the fin being erected) is osseous, a rather slender rod tipped with cartilage at either end. Proximally it does not reach the pectoral arch, a small cartilage intervening. This is Huxley's^ wictapterygial basale. The next element, proceeding 1 HaxUjj.—h.njL,tQi\xy of the Vertebrates. London, 1S71. I 304 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. anteriorly, is similar in appearance, but stouter. Distally, like the basale, it supports the fin rays, but proxiraally it articulates with the upper surface of the anterior extremity of the spicule-like bridge. Between the distal ends of this, which is a radial and the basale, is a small cartilage, embraced by the fin-rays. The next element, anteriorly, is a large cartilaginous nodule, articulating with the extremity of the rod-like process of the coracoid, and supporting the fin rays. It probably represents another radial. Huxley's 7neso- pterygial basale is here, as is usual, ossified with the anterior fin ray. Concerning the majority of these structures nothing need be said but that they are on the same plan as the rays of the unpaired fins. The most anterior ray (fig. 7), however, requires special mention. It is completely ossified, terminates in a sharp point, and has the posterior edge^serrated. By special arrangements it can be firmly fixed in the erect position, and can only be depressed by rotation through an angle of i^0° ; it is therefore an important weapon for defence or offence. Tliese arrangements are as follows : — From the upper surface of the base (the original mesopterygial basale) a high semi-circular ridge (sr) arises, and the proximal extremity terminates in two processes {tps and tpi), including a deep groove between them. When the fin is erected the semi-circular ridge runs into the semi- circular groove (fig. 1 sg) at the base of the inferior process of the niesoclavicula, and at the same time the outer edge of the coracoid is received into the groove between the two terminal processes. Move- ment directly forward or directly backward is now effectually prevented, and flexion can only be accomplished by rotation, when the ridge slips out of its groove, and the outer edge of the coracoid out of its groove. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 305 The terms applied to the different parts of the pectoral arch have varied much at different periods. The following table will illustrate this : rd "2 3 A >• 3 1 'o o s o •i-H "3 o -5 W (» o IS O k u 3 n O «' (» c« 1 A •d 2 s c8 s 'S o d g o CO i 'Ph Si c^ ^' 6 2 < 00 S g _e8 DD CD o o M 6 i a (C IC IC |S 05 u -2 2 "g ^ 'C D O 3 c« o a "o V 2 o O s Bi U. s 05 <1> 3 0^ -1-2 1 6 o a o '3 ri aj (3 o ce o .2 a; ■ft a S u; O o c < a o o < 8 O rS -5 -5 go '3 o "3 o "3 b s > > o 13 JS ,2 ^ '> £ -J e« "o o r^ S c 'o o K E "3 o k o 05 c4 O «H g- u -»i u o 3 S o M O cc S m Pm 306 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. X.— PELVIC ARCH AND FIN. The pelvic arch consists of two similar pieces united in the middle line. The anterior part of each piece is very thin, and is produced into a point at the outer angle. The posterior edge is rounded, and gives articulating surfaces for the rays of the ventral fin — eight in number. Postei'iorly in the middle line there is a horse-shoe shaped cartilage, the concavity of which is directed backwards, the two limbs of which give attachment to portions of the infracarinales muscles. Cristse for the attachment of muscles traverse the thin portion, and the posterior border is edged with cartilage. According to DavidofF^ these bones are not homologous with the pelvis of the Elasmobranchs, but correspond to the metapterygial basalia much enlarged. The pelvis of Amhirus corresponds very closely to the description of that of Barbies Jiuviatilis given by the same author, the horse-shoe shaped cartilage representing the stout posterior pro- cess as in that form. The reduction of the radialia which charactei'ises the Teleosts wlien compared with Elasmobranchs and Ganoids is here cari'ieif to its greatest extreme, these structui-es being entirely absent. The fin-rays have tlie usual character. Having now described the structure of the various parts com- posing the skeleton of this Siluroid, it remains to point out one or two generalizations with regard to it. In the first place its relation to the Cyprinoids is close, as evidenced by the modifications of the anterior and the tail vertebrae, and also by the relations of the audi- tory apparatus. Secondly, there is evidence that the Siluroids have branched off at a very early period from the primordial Teleosts. This is shown, as has been already stated, by the almost complete ossification of the skull, and also by the extent of the specialization of the various parts. The canal for the orbital muscles has almost disappeared, showing that Amiuriis has passed through a stage in which it possessed a complete canal, a stage in which the Cyprinoids still remain. The perfectness of the arrangements for the fixation of the 1 Dauicio/— Beitrage zur vergl. Anat. d. hinteren Gliedmasae d. Fische. Morph. Jarhb. VI. 1880. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 307 antei'ioi' ray of the pectoral fin also points to the lapse of a consider- able period of time, daring which small successive changes have been wrought, and the extent of the modifications of the dorsal fin for the same purpose point to the same conclusion. Other evidences of a similar nature are to be seen in the absence of any neural arches corresponding with the hsemal processes which support the rays of the caudal fin. and in the complete abortion of the radialia of the ventral fin. All these latter points are, however, subordinate to the fii'st in determining the relative position of Amiurus. Since the course of development, as is shown both by the ontological history of any form, and by the study of the various vertebrate groups, leads from a purely cai'tilaginous to a purely osseous skeleton, the amount of cai'tilage present in the skeleton of any fish is in indirect relation to the extent of its development. This character is necessarily less subject to the modification of external conditions than other parts, so that even though certain of these may undergo great specialization, vet if a considerable amount of cartilage be present in the skeleton, the form under consideration must be considered as standing com- paratively low in the group. The Lophobranchiates, for instance, have undergone modifications, even more striking than those of Amiurus, but since the relative amount of cartilage in the skull is greater, and the parts modified may all be readily influenced by the conditions of existence, the members of this group must be placed lower among the Teleosts than Amiurus. In conclusion, a few words concerning the process of ossification. From what has already been said in this paper, it will be seen that what may be termed several modes of ossification are present. We have, in the first place, the deposition of the bone in general connec- tive tissue, forming certain of the ' Deckknochen,' and the bones around the mucous canals ; we have, secondly, cement-bone, as in the premaxillse and dentary ; and we have, thirdly, perichondral bone, as in the prootic. palatine, etc. It has also been shown that all these forms of bone formation pass into one another perfectly, no dividing line marking the termination of one form and the commencement of another. Not only, however, do they thus pass into one another, but they also replace each other. This is very evident in the. case of the frontal, maxillae, vomer, parasphenoid and mucous canal bones. At one time these bones were probably formed by the union of the 308 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. cement plates, as has been shown by Hertwig/ but in tlie process of time, by a shortening of their developmental history, the bone came to be deposited directly in membrane, without any previous tooth- formation. The same thing may happen with certain perichondral bones, as, for instance, the palatine and the branchial arches. These in some Teleosts are formed from cement-bone, but in Amiurus are developed perichondrally, a shortening of the development again taking place. But not only are these different varieties of bone identical in their histological features, and not only are they able to replace each other, but they also are identical in their histogenesis. In all osteoblasts are present (either transformed cartilage or connective tissue cells) and secrete the calcareous matter which is deposited in an organic non-cartilaginous substance. This is very evident in the case of the * Deck-knochen' and mucous-canal bones. It is also the case with, cement bones which are formed of osseous trabeculae deposited in membrane by means of osteoblasts, the cement plates of the teeth themselves arising, " theils direct als Abscheidung einer zelligen Anlage (cement membran), theils durch Verknocherung des den Zahn ungebenden Bindegewebes^ ;" so that the formation of the subsequent osseous trabeculje is merely a continuation of the original process which formed the individual cement plates. And again, with regard to the perichondral bone the same thing may be shown to obtain. With the growth of the bone secreted by the osteoblasts there is a concomitant absorption of the cai'tilage, the cartilage cells probably being partially transformed into osteoblasts, by whose agency new trabeculae are formed occupying the place of the lately absorbed cartilage, there being no deposition of the calcareous matter in the cartilaginous matrix. This is what occurs in centripetal perichon- dral bone^. The processes in centrifugal perichondral bone are simi- lar to those to be seen in the formation of cement-bone. In the dentary portion of the mandible there is a combination of the cement process with the centrifugal perichondral process, in which union of processes is seen the close relationship between perichondral and cement-bone. For exactly the same process goes on as in the premaxillfe and the palatines. The osteoblasts which have given rise to one individual cement plate carry on their work of bone ''■ 0. Hertwig—loc cit. * 0. Hertwig—loc. cit. ^ See Schmid-Monnard — loc. cit. THE OSTEOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 309 formation, producing osseous trabeculae which replace the cartilage as it becomes absorbed, so that one might justly term the dentary a cement bone. It has now been shown that membrane-bone, cement-bone, and peri- chondral bone can replace each other, that they are identical in their histological characters, and also that they are identical in their mode of formation. A comparison of the upper portions of the premaxillae with the frontals shows that the process of bone forma- tion is in both cases the same, and similarly a comparison of the dentary with the palatine or prootic shows that the centripetal peri- chondral method can start and be in relation with cement bone just as well as centrifugal perichondral bone ; for in the prootic, palatine, etc., a layer of bone is first deposited outside the cartilage and by the formation of trabeculse in connection with this, and extending out into the surrounding connective-tissue, the bone grows in thickness. There can be no good reason, then, on histogenetic grounds, for the separation of these varieties into different groups. The Gegenbaurian distinction of bones into primary and secondary' is now proved to be imperfect, and consequently also Vrolik's^ classi- fication of bone formation into perichonrostotisch and enchondrosto- tisch. Walthei'^ from his observations on the pike, classifies the various kinds of bone thus : — !1. Cementknochen (primiire Deckknochen). 2. Bindegewebsknochen (secundare Deckknochen). 3. Perichondralknochen (centrifugal wachsend). Knorpelknochen } ^- Perichondral (centripetal wachsend). I 2. Enchondral (Bildung von Knochenkernen). Goldi, again, in a very recent paper, objects to Walther's distinc- tion between centrifugal and centripetal perichondral bones and classifies thus : — 1. Cementknochen. I. Hautknochen 2. Bindegewebsknochen. II. Perichondrale j 1. Exo-perichondral (centrifugal wachsend.) Knochen \ 2. Endo-perichondral (centripetal wachsend), and refers to a third group endrochondral bones, i. e., those formed from a centre of ossification in the centre of the cartilage. 1 '7cgrcnbaur— Elements of comparative anatomy. 2 Vrolik — loc. cit. s Walthtr —Die Entw. d. Deckknochen am Kopf-skelet des Heclites (Esox lucius). Jen. Zeit. B<1. XVI., 18S2. 310 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. It is a question whether from the facts of development one is entitled to lay such stress upon the presence of cartUage, and thus to separate so distinctly the perichondral from the membrane bones. I should prefer to have two classes of bone-formation (I.) that in which the calcareous matter is first deposited in the centre of the cartilage, and (II.) that in which it is not. In the first class enchondral bone would be placed and in the second the other four. But since such classification should indicate the ontogeny of the bone as well as its histogenesis, since the preformation of a bone in carti- lage is of great use in determining its homologies, the second class should be subdivided. My classification would then be as follows : — I. Bones developing from ossificatory centre in the cartilage. 1. Endochondral bone. II. Bonea which do not develope from ossificatory centre in the cartilage. A. Bones preformed in cartilage : 1. Exoperichondral (centrifugal). 2. Endo-perichondral (centripetal). 3. Cement bones which replace cartilage. B. Bones not preformed in cartilage : 1. Membrane bones. 2. Cement bones which do not replace cartilage. Guelph, February 25th, 1SS4. 311 ] THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS (L.) GILL. BY J. PLAYFAIR McMURRICH, M. A. Professor in the Ontario Agricultural College. [Read before the Canadian Institute, April the 5th, ISSU.] The group of the physostoinous fishes shows many structural diver- gences from the common type, and in the osseous and muscular sys- tems this fact is especially noticeable. In no large group do we find the structure identical throughout the various members, but varia- tions occur sometimes in one, sometimes in another particular, ac- cording to the natural conditions under which the animal exists. The osseous and muscular systems being so closely related, one would naturally expect to find great modifications of the one accompanied by equal modifications of the other, the extraordinary development of a muscle causing an extraordinary development of the parts to which it is attached, and, vice versa, the modification of a bone for any special purpose being accompanied by a suitable modification of the attached muscles. Vetter^ has given a detailed account of the myology of the head and arches of Cyprinus, Barhus, Esox and Perca ; Cuvier ^ before him a complete account of the musculature of Perca ; and similarly Owen ' and Stannius.* In the succeeding pages I propose giving an account of the myology of Amiurus catus, a Siluroid, and comparing it with that of other members of the Physostomi, with the object of showing the coordinate modifications of parts and of deducing probable homo- logies. I may state here that I am indebted to Prof. R. Ramsay "Wright for information regarding the innervation of the various muscles, he having studied this subject, so necessary in discussing homologies, ui connection with the nervous system of Amiurus. In connection with the muscles of the head and arches, in drawing com- 1 Kc»«r— Untersuchuugen ziir vergl. Anat. der Kiemen, und Kiefer-Muskeln der Fische. Th. XL, Jen. Zeit. Bd. xii. ' Cuvier et Valenciennes— Hist. Nat. des Poissons, Paris, 1828. • Owen — On the Anatomy of Vertebrates, Vol. I., London, 1866. * StanniMs— Handbuch der Zootoraie, Bd. I. 312 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. pai'ison with other forms when no authority is given for statements regarding these, it may be assumed that they are drawn from Vet- ter's paper. I shall divide the various muscles into the following groups, ac- cording to their present relations : — I. — Mandibular Muscles. II. — Muscles of the Palatine arch. III. — Opercular Muscles. IV. — Muscles of the Hyoid arch. Y. — Muscles of the Branchial arches. VI. — The Trunk Musculature. VII. — Muscles of the Pectoral arch and fin. VIII. — Muscles of the Pelvic arch and fin. IX. — Muscles of the Dorsal fin. X. — Muscles of the Anal fin. XI. — Muscles of the Caudal fin. I.— MANDIBULAR MUSCLES. In removing the integument from the side of the skull, one ex- poses a strong fascia, attached above to the frontal and supraoccipital bones, and covering the large adductor mandibuke. Behind, it is attached to the descending ridge of the supraoccipital, and thence passes to the postei'ior border of the hyomandibular, preoperculum, and quadrate, whence it is continued on to the mandible. In front it contains behind the eye the chain of infraorbital bones. Passing below the eye, it passes forward and is attached to the antorbital pro- cess, continuing on over the nasal region, and containing the nasal and adnasal bones, to be finally inserted into the premaxillse. On removing this fascia one exposes the 1. Adductor Mandibul^e, (No. 20, Cuv.; Retractor oris, Owen; M. Masseter, Ag.) (PI. III., Fig. 1, AM.) This is a broad thick muscle, which fills up the depression on the side of the skull. It arises from a semicircular ridge commencing anteriorly and above on the outer edge of the ecteth- moid, extending thence along the frontal and supraoccipital. The muscle covers the sphenotic and pterotic, from the edges of which fibres also originate. Descending posteriorly, the line of origin passes along the posterior edge of the hyomandibular and preopercu- THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 313 lum, and thence to the qnadvate. Certain fibres also take origin from the surface of the hyomandibular and from the transverse ridge on that bone. These fibres are at first distinct from the main muscle but soon unite with it. The lower fibres pass obliquely forward, and are inserted directly into the posterior edge of the process of the articulare, uniting partly with the remaining fibres. These converge towards the inner surface of the mandible, uniting to form a tendon on the inner surface of the muscle which is inserted into the longitu- dinal ridge on inner surface of articulare and the inner surface of the dentary, Meckel's cartilage receiving also some fibres. Innervation. — It is supplied by the trigeminus. The deeper portions are supplied by a branch arising from the upper lateral strand of the trigeminus before its division into the superior and in- ferior maxillary branches. The superficial portions are innervated by a branch ai-ising just behind this. Action. — The add. mand. raises the jaw after it has been depressed by the geniohyoid, and is therefore the opponent of that muscle. In most Teleostei the add. itiand. consists of three portions, of which the upper passes to the maxilla, the others to the mandible. In Esox, an arrangement more related to that occurring in Amiurus ob- tains. The superficial portion is wanting, but the other two portions are distinct. Of these the upper, arising from the upper part of the semicircular ridge and inserted into the inner surface of the articu- lare and Meckel's cartilage, corresponds to the upper portions of the muscle in Amiurus ; while the deeper one, arising from the metapt- erygoid and lower part of the semicircular ridge and inserted into Meckel's cartilage, a tendon uniting with that of the upper portion, corresponds with the lower portion of the muscle in Amiurus plus that arising from the transverse ridge and surface of the hyomandi- bular which here usurps the position of the metapterygoid, the slight difference in the insertion being no greater than that which obtains in Hsox and Barhus in the deeper portions, which in these forms are clearly homologous. From the position of the muscle one may conclude that it is an angular structure, i.e., belonging equally to the upper and lower moieties of the first post-oral arch, and this conclusion is confirmed by the innervation, the supplying branches leaving the trunk of the trigeminus before its division into the superior and inferior maxillary branches. Since the maxilla is a splint-bone belonging to the upper half of this arch, one would sup- 314 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. pose that originally it received a portion of the muscle, and that the arrangement now seen in Cyprinus, Barbus, and Perca, is the older one, that of Esox and Amiurus boing the later modification. 2. Adductor Tentaculi.— (PI. III., Fig. 1, and 2, AT.) On cutting through the insertion of the add. mand. and reflecting it, a muscle is exposed which is apparently characteristic of the Siluroids. It arises from the outer surface of the metapterygoid, its upper portion being covered by the lev. arcUs palatini. It runs for- ward beneath the add. mand., forming the inferior boundary of the orbit and being crossed by the fifth nerve. Anteriorly it becomes tendinous, the tendon near its insertion dividing into two slips, be- tween which the nerve supplying the tentacle passes. One of these slips is inserted into the upper, the other into the lower border of the base of the maxilla, which encloses the proximal portion of the tentacle. Innervation. — It is supplied by a branch of the same nerve that supplies the deeper portions of the add. mand. Action. — It di'aws the tentacle backwards towards the middle line, opposing the anterior portion of the add. arcus palatini. The position and innervation of this muscle leads to the conclu- sion that it is a part of the add. mand. which has been separated off for a particular purpose. It does not, however, compare with any of the three parts of that muscle in Barbus or Ferca, nor even with the fourth part, which is sometimes pi'esent, as in Cyprimus, since this is formed by a division of the superficial portion. Since the osseous support of the long tentacle is the maxilla, this muscle bears a certain amount of analogy to the superficial portion of the add. mand., but it cannot be its homologue. The relation of the maxilla to the tentacle was probably secondary, and since the power of moving the tentacle would always have been an advantage it is probable that originally the muscle was inserted into the tentacular cartilage, its insertion into the maxilla only occurring after that bone had commenced to be a support and had enclosed the base of the tentacle. There are two theories which will account for the presence of this muscle. (1) It may be a new structure evolved for a particular purpose, or (2), it may be the representative of a muscle present in ancestral forms but which has disappeared in all the Teleostei hitherto examined. If the latter is the correct explanation, one THE MYOLOGY OF AMrURUS CATUS. 315 should be able to point to homologotis muscles iu the lower fonas. Can this be done I As to the Ganoids, to which one would naturally turn, i have not been able to consult any account of their muscula- ture, with the exception of Tetter's description of Acipenser, in which, apparently, no homologue is present.' In the Elasraobranchs'-' however, there are muscles with a cei-tain amount of similarity. In Chhnceri. the lev. aaguli oris consists of two portions, of which the posterior arises principally from the lower border of the orbit, is in- serted into the inner surface of the posterior inferior labial cartilage, and is innervated by twigs from the R. maxillaris inferior trigemini. The Plagiostomi present a muscle even more analogous. It is absent in Heptanchus, in Acunthias, but strong in SGyllium, and arises from the under surface of the orbital regions of the skull. It passes for- wards and is united by connective tissue to the posterior superior labial cartilage, union occurring also with the add. viand. It is inner- vated by a twig of the second branch of the trigeminies, which runs over the muscle into the integument of the upper lip. Vetter terms this muscle the lev. lahii sioperioris. The difference between this muscle and the add. tent, may possibly be explained by the presence of the membrane bones in the Teleos- tean skull, but nevertheless it seems that the first hypothesis is to be preferred. As I have already shown in a preceding paper, the Sil- uroids must have branched off very early from the original stem of the Teleosts, and have undergone much specialization. The presence of the tentacle itself is a great specialization, and since it would be of advantage to the fish that this should be capable of voluntary move- ment, there would be a tendency for a separation of certain fibres of the aid. mand. for this purpose, which tendency would in the course of time result in the production of a perfectly distinct muscle. The innervation points very strongly to this theory, and the adaptation of the anterior fibres of the add. arcQ,s palatini to act as an abductor tentaculi also accords with it. 3. MuscuLUS Intermandibularis, (No. 21, Cuv.) (Fig. 3, Im.) This muscle is seen on removing the integument from the under surface of the head. It lies immediately behind the symphysis of the mandible, running transversely from one ramus to the other. 1 Vetter — Loo. cit. i Kett«r— Untersch. ztir vergl. Anat der Kienien-und Kiefer-Muakein der Fisclie. Th. I., Jen. Zeit. Bd. viii. 23 316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, Innervation. — A branch from an anastomosis of R. maxillaris inf. trigemini and Ji. hyoideo-mandibularis facialis. Action. — Prevents the separation of the rami of the mandibles whether from pressure within or from the action of the lev. arcHs palatini. II.— MUSCLES OF THE PALATINE ARCH. 1. Levator ArcAs Palatini, (No. 24, Cuv.; Lev. suspensorii, Stan.; Lev. tympani, Ow.) (Figs. 1 & 2, LAP). This is exposed on cutting through the upper and posterior portions of the insertion of the add. maad., and reflecting it. The muscle may be described as consisting of two parts. The anterior portion is triangular and thick, and arises from the poste- rior border of the antorbital process and fi'om the inferior surface and the edge of the ectethmoid and frontal. Its fibres arching over the orbit and passing below the add. mand., unite to a tendon, which is inserted into the extremity of the transverse ridge of the hyomandibular. The posterior part is quadrangular and thin, and arises from the edge of the sphenotic. Those fibres arising from the rudimentary postorbital process are at first tendinous but soon be- come muscular, and, along with the more anterior ones, pass directly downwards to be inserted along the whole upper surface of the trans- verse ridge on the hyomandibular, a few fibres passing to the surface of the bone above the ridge. Innervation. — It is supplied by a branch from an independent strand of the trigeminus which accompanies the R. maxillaris sup. Action. — It raises the palatine arch. The anterior triangular por- tion will also pull it forwards. This muscle is very similar in its relations to that of Esox, but dif- fers slightly fi-om that of other forms. The innervation differs also slightly, Vetter describing it in the forms he studied as being by a branch from the R. maxillaris inferior. Here, however, the inde- pendent strand must be equivalent to this branch, since like it it also supplies the dilatator opercidi. The great differentiation which the trigeminus shows accounts for these slight dissimilarities. 2. Adductor Arcus Palatini, (No. 22, Cuv. ; Constrictor, Stan. ; Depressor tympani, Ow.) This consists of two distinct parrs. The posterior portion is ex- posed by removing the branchial and lower pai't of the hyoid appara- <^ ■ THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 317 tus and so exposing the under sixrface of the skull. It is covered below by a dense fascia, in the anterior prolongation of which is the bone denominated No. 4. This posterior portion arises from the edges and the ascending process of the j)arasphenoid, and from the contiguous surface of the prootic. The fibres pass directly outwards and are inserted into the inner surface of the metapterygoid and an- terior portion of the hyoniandibular. The anterior portion may best be seen on the outer surface of the skull, after removing add. tnand. and lev. arc. pal.. It arises from the parasphenoid, orbitosphenoid and upper surface of No. 4, which is developed in the fascia covering its inner surface. It passes outwards and is inserted into the inner surface of the posterior half of the palatine. Innervation. — Both muscles are supplied by a special branch of the facial — the B. muse. add. arc us palatini. Action. — The posterior portion depresses or adducts the palatine arch after it has been raised or abducted by the lev. arc. pal. The anterior portion acts directly on the posteiior extremity of the pala- tine, and indirectly through it on the tentacle. By pulling the pos- terior extremity of the palatine inwards it forces its anterior ex- tremity outwards. To this is attached a portion of the dense fascia which covers the autorbital process and adjacent parts, fibres of which are also inserted into the base of the maxilla. When, therefore, the muscle acts, the fascia is rendered tense, and by the arrangement of the osseous parts acts on the maxilla, drawing the tentacle forwards. This anterior portion acts therefore as the opponent of the add. tent. The muscle in Esox corresponds to the posterior portion in Amiurus, the anterior portion being apparently wanting. In Cyprinus, how- ever, the origin is continued forward on the orbitosphenoid, and is more like what has been described. In neither of these forms, how- ever, do any fibres pass to the palatine, being wholly confined to the metapterygoid and entopterygoid, and extending in Perca back to the hyomandibular. At first sight the anterior portion does not seem to have any relation to the posterior, since, from its lying on the outer (upper) surface of No. 4, it seems to belong rather to the outer surface of the skull than the inner. But, when the relations of that bone are considered, it is at once evident that this anterior portion is a special modification of the anterior fibres of a muscle similar to that of the Cyprinoids. 318 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 3. Adductor Hyomandibularis, (No. 26, Cuv. in part ; Deprpssor siispensiorii, Stan.; Dejjressor o^^erculi, Ow., in part.) This muscle is very closely related to the add. opercidi, lying inm- mediately in front of it and partly overlapped by it. It arises from the lower surface of the pterotic, and passes downwards, outwards and forwards, to be inserted into the hyomandibular immediately above the opercular process. Innervati on. — Ramus opercular is facialis. Action. — It aids the add. arc. pal. The relations of this muscle correspond almost exactly with those of the corresponding muscle in Perca. In Esox, however, it is merely a part of the add. arc. pal., while in the Cyprinoids it has a much greater origin and insertion than in any of the other forms. Ill— OPERCULAR MUSCLES. 1. Levator Operculi, (No. 25, Cuv.) (Figs. 1 & 2, LOp.) The levator of the operculum is exposed by removing the integu- ment from the side of the head and stripping off the posterior continuation of the fascia covering the ajid. niand. This poste- rior continuation is not directly continuous with the anterior portion, but takes origin from the posterior edge of hyomandibular and preoperculum, and is attached above to the edge of the pterotic and below to the upper surface of the operculum, being posteriorly continuous with the fascia covering the trunk musculature. The muscle arises from the posterior edge of the ridge on the hyomandi- bular, and from the edge of the pterotic. Its fibres are directed •downwards and slightly backwards, and are inserted into the whole upper border of the operculum. Ivmervation. — R. opercula.ris facialis. Action. — It jJuUs the operculum upwards and slightly forwards, ihelping the dilatator. 2. Dilatator Operculi, (No. 2-5, Cuv., anterior part ; Lev. operculi, ant. part, Ow.) (Fig. 2, Dil. Op.) This muscle lies immediately below and behind the lev. arc. pal., and is closely related to it. The anterior part forms a very strong tendon, which arises by muscular fibres from the under surface of the frontal and ectethmoid above the orbit and be- THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 319 low the first portion of lev. arc. pal. The tendon passes obliquely backwai'ds and is inserted into the anterior and upper surfaces of the process by which the operculum articulates with the hyomandibular. The origin of the muscle is continued backwards on the ventral sur- faces of the frontal and sphenotic, a few fibres arising from the lat- ter behind the postorbital process, and posteriorly a few take origin fi-oni the surface of the hyomandibular and from the ridge on its posterior superior angle. The majority of these fibres imite with the strong tendon, only those which arise from the hyomandibular being inserted directly into the opercular knob. Innervation. — It is innervated by a branch of the nerve which, supplies the superficial portion of add. niand., i. e., a branch from the trigeminus arising behind the branch for the deep portion of add, itiand. and add. tent. Action. — Raises the operculurn, and swings it outwards on its ar- ticulation with the hyomandibular. In Esox this muscle is weak and does not extend forwards beyond the posterior extremity of the articulation of the hyomandibular with the pterotic. In Ferca it reaches the sphenotic, but in none does it extend as far as in Amiurus. In other Teleosts the innerva- tion is from twigs from the branch of R. laax. inf. triyemini, which supplies the lev. arc. pal.^ while iiere the innervation would indicate a closer relationship with the add. niand. 3. Adductok Operculi, (No. 26, Cuv. ; D^rpressor opercidi, Stan, et Ow.) This may be seen by cutting through the insertion of the levator operculi and reflecting it, or better, by the dissection required for exposing the add. arc. pal. and add. hyomand. It arises from the inferior surface of the pterotic, and is inserted into the posterior edge of the upper border and the upper part of the inner surface of the operculum. I a nervation. — Ramus opercidaris facialis. Action. — Appi'oximates the operculum to the side of head, and is therefore the opponent of lev. and dil. opeic'di. 320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. IV.— MUSCLES OF THE HYOID ARCH. 1. Geniohyoideus, (No. 27, Cuv.) (Fig. 3, GH). This nmscle which runs along the inner side of the ramus of the mandible, may be exposed by removing the integument from the lower surface of the skull and turning back the intermandihu- laris which covers its insertion. It arises from the posterior portion of the lower (ventral) and outer surfaces of the ceratohyal, and also from the epihyal at the bases of the upper branch iostegal rays. It passes forwards as a thick muscle, inclining slightly in- wards towards its fellow of the opposite side, the inner fibrfis being inserted into a median aponeurosis between the two, no interdigita- tion occurring. The greater bulk of the niuscle inclines outwards, and is inserted into the posterior surface of the anterior part of the ramus of the mandible, being partly covered by the intermandibu- laris. Crossing the anterior portion of the miiscle obliquely are two tendinous bands, (Fig. 3, ti, ti^), to which are attached the cartilagin- ous supports of the tentacles of the under surface. Innervation. — R. hyoideo-mandihnlaris Jhcinlis. Action. — According as the hyoid or mandibular arches are fixed this muscle acts in different ways. If the hyoid is fixed by the hyoclavicularis it acts on the mandible, depressing it. This is its usual action. If, however, the mandible is fixed by the powerful add. viand., it raises the hyoid arch and through it the operculum, thus aiding the lev. and dil. operc. Through the tendons which pass across it, it is the means by which the tentacles resting on these tendons move, but the range of motion thus imparted is very small. The simplicity of this muscle contrasts somewhat with what occurs in Esox, and agrees more closely with the arrangement in Barhus. In Cyjyrinus the origin is similar, and in Barlms the muscles of either side do not interdigitate as they appear to do in other fishes. In Esox and Cyjyrinus a median enlargement of the muscle occurs. The tendinous bands are of course peculiar to the Siluroids. 2. Hyohyoideus, (Nos. 28 and 29, Cuv. ; Lev. and Dep. branchios- teyariiQii, Ow.) This is exposed by the dissection required for the preceding with the removal of the integument from the branchiostegal rays. It may be considered as being composed of two portions, of which the THE" MYOLOftY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 321 posterior belongs essentially to the branchiostegal rays. This por- tion (Fig. 3, Hh"^) arises from the inner surfaces of the operculum and interoperculum, extending from them to the dorsal border of the first branchiostegal ray Thence it passes below that ray to the dor- sal border of the second, and so on to the most internal ray, becom- ing narrower as it iiears the median line, and having its central fibres better developed than the lateral ones. From the last ray the muscle extends upwards and forwards, and is inserted into the apon- eurosis which separates it from its fellow. The anterior portion (Fig. 3, Hh'-), arises from the upper border and surface of the ceratohyal and hypohyal, and passing inwards is inserted into the aponeurosis between it and its fellow. I nnervation. — R. hyoideo-mandibnlaris facialis. Action. — Both portions act as constrictors. The posterior portion will close the aperture of the gill cavity by shutting down upon it the branchiostegal membrane. The complete closure of the "gill- slit" is necessary in order that the hyoid apparatus and its muscles may properly perform their pumping action. The anterior portion approximates the hyoid arches, and thus aids the posterior portion, drawing the whole hyoid apparatus towards the side of the skull. The hyohyoidem varies somewhat in ditFerent forms. In Esox it passes as a continuous sheet over the branchiostegal rays, not i)assing from one to the other as in Amiurus and the Cyprinoids. In Perca and Esox the muscle passes directly across to the hyoid arch of the opposite side, and in the latter there is a separation into two bundles of which the outermost passes forward and is inserted into the cera- tohyal and hypohyal, and therefore corresponds to the anterior muscle of Amiurus. In Perca neither Stannius nor Cuvier nor Owen desci'ibes an anterior portion, but Owen states^ that " In some tishes a transverse muscle, repeating the characters of 21, Fig. 135, {i.e., the intermandibularis), passes from one ceratohyal to the other." Vet- ter terms that portion of the muscle which runs between the branchi- ostegal rays the ' liiiolijioideus snjterior,' grouping those portions coming from the most internal ray and from the ceratohyal together as the ' hyohyoideus inferior,' an arrangement which in Esox is -quite proper, but will not hold with Amiurus. ■ 1 Ovten. — Imc. eit. 322 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 3. HyopectoRalis, (No. 1 Cuv. ; Retractor hi/oidei, Ow. ; Sterno- hyoid, Stan, et Yetter.) This muscle is exposed by removing tlie anterior portion of the hyohyoideus and the inner part of its posterior portion. It arises from the iipper (dorsal) surface of the clavicle and from the strong ridge separating this muscle from the erector of the pectoral fin. It passes forwards, lying anteriorly on the upper surface of the urohyal, and being separated from its fellow by the median crest on that bone. It is inserted into the anterior portion of the urohyal below its small upper plate. (Fig. 4, Hy. P.) Innervation. — Branch from the united first and second spinal nerves. Action. — By its contraction it draws the anterior extremities of the hyoid arches downwards, and so enlarges the cavity of the mouth. In respiration the branchiostegal membrane closing the gill-slit, the action of this muscle will cause the flow of water into the mouth. This being then closed by the powerful add. niand., the hyo-pector- alis and hyohyoideus relaxes, and the geniohyoid then acting, draws the hyoid arches upwards and forces the water out by the gill-slit. I have ventured to indicate this muscle by a new name. That used by Vetter is not appropriate owing to the absence of any struc- ture which can be termed a sternum. Owen's name also is faulty, since the action is not so much to retract the hyoids as to depress their anterior extremities. The name applied above is analogous with those of the other muscles of the hyoid aix-h indicating its in- sertion and origin. v.— MUSCLES OF THE BRANCHIAL AKCHES. A. — Ventkal Muj:cles. 1. MuscULUS Hyobranchialis, (No. 35 Cuv. ; Pharyngo-hyoideus^ Pharyngo-arcualis and Interac. ohl. vent, in part, Vetter). After having exposed the hyopectoralis. it should be cut through and reflected, and the fascia covering the under surface of the branchial arches then removed. The hyobranchialis (Fig. 4, HBr.) will then be seen as a stout muscle lying to the side of the median line on either side on the under surface of the branchial arches. It arises from the posterior surface of the hypohyoid by a round tendon, which is continued some distance backwards on the THE MYOLOGY OF AIMURUS CATUS. 323' dorsal surface of the muscle. Opposite the second branchial arch a slip (HBr^) sepai-ates from the main muscle and is inserted into the inner extremity of the anterior ridge of ceratobranchial iii. A second slip (HBr^) is inserted similarly into ceratobranchial iv., the main muscle passing straight backwards to be inserted into the an- terior border of the pharyngeal inferior (ceratobranchial v.) In a specimen of Andurus nigricans (Les) Gill, fibres were also seen pass- ing fi'om the main muscle to ceratobranchials i. and ii. Certain interarcual slips run parallel to the muscle proper, and, from their relation to the slips to the ceratobranchials, may be considered as sec- ondary parts of it. One (HBr^) arises from the point of attachment of the slip to ceratobranchial iii., and passes back to the anterior ridge of ceratobranchial iv., it.s insertion being closely related with that of slip from main muscle to the same bone. A second bundle (HBr*) continues this first one backwards, and is inserted into the inferior pharyngeal (ceratobranchial) along with the main muscle. Action. — The hyoid being fixed it will draw the branchial appara- tus forward, the interarcual slips approximating the arches to which they are attached. As indicated by the synonyms, the muscle under consideration is probably comparable to two or more distinct muscles in other Teleo- stei. Tne main muscle seems to have certain analogies with the muscle in Perca, termed by Vetter the pharynyo-hyoideus, and by Owen the hranchi-depressor, which extends from the urohyal to the inferior pharyngeals on either side. The pharyngo-arctoalis, which is present in Usox and the Cyprinoids (in which the pharyngo- hyoideus is absent), but absent in Perca, also presents resemblances. It arises from the anterior border of the infeinor pharyngeal, and divides into two slips, the outer of which passes to ceratobranchial iv., and is, therefore, comparable to the interarcual slip extending between the same parts in Amiurus. The inner portion inserts into hypobranchial iii., uniting in Esox with the obliqui ventrales of ceratobranchial iv. and liypobi'anchial iii. The first of these latter muscles in Esox and the Cyprinoids sends a slip to the ceratohyal,. and that of the fourth arch besides passing to its own ceratobranchial sends also a slip to the hypobranchial iii. I am inclined to consider the hyobranchialis of Amiurus as equi- valent to all these parts. If one imagines the pharyngo-hjioidexis of Perca, and the pharynyo-arcualis of Esox and the Cyprinoids united^ 324 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. one will have a muscle passing from hyoid directly to the inferior pharyngeal, and, in addition, sending a slip from that bone to cei-atobr. iv. ; and one can see in the slip of the obliquus ventralis of the fourth arch which passes forwards to the third, a homologue of the slip between ceratobi's. iii. & iv. in Amiurus. The hyoid and branchial arches being the htemal arches of six of the vertebrae which enter into the skull, one may suppose that in ancestral forms there were sheets of muscle extending from one arch to the next, compar- able to the myomeres of the trunk ; or rather, since these arches are so early concerned in the function of respiration, it may be imagined that each head cavity developed into muscle above and below, but aborted in its median poi'tion. We would then have on the under surface of the branchial arches a series of muscles passing from the hyoid to tirst bi-anchial arch, from that to the second, and so on. Next, the inner fibres of these myomeres united to form a muscular belly extending from the hyoid directly to the fifth arch. The outer fibres did not take part in this modification, or at least only to a par- tial extent, certain of them becoming detached from their anterior attachment and united 'to the large belly, the posterior attachment persisting. The fibres passing to ceratobrs. i. and ii. in Amiurus nigricans, are rudiments of these, and those to ceratobrs. iii. and iv. persisting examples. Those outer fiVjres which did not become modi- fied form the interarcual slips between ceratobrs. iii. and iv., and iv. and V. In other fishes the process of specialization has gone on still farther, certain slips becoming aborted and others losing their ori- ginal connections, so that the primary relations ai'e lost. 2. MuscuLi Interarcuales Obliqui Ventrales, (No. 38, Cuv.) On removing the preceding muscle, these i Fig. i, Ob. V and Ob. V^) are exposed. They are three in number in Amiurus, and are small and triangular, extending from the hyobi-s. i., ii. and iii., to the ceratobrs. of the same arches. Action. — They draw the ai-ches downwards towards the middle line and slightly forward. These may be considered as modified representatives of the inter- arcual slips between the tliii'd and fourth, and fourth and fifth arches. The original course of the muscular fibres of the myomeres is repre- sented by these latter, and since that of the fibres of the interarcua- les obliqui is almost transverse, they must have been transferred THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 325 from their original position. According to this view the fiV)i'es of the first muscle originally ran from the ceratohyal to ceratobr. i., as indeed slips do in Esox and the Cyprinoids ; those of the second from ceratobr. i. to ceratobr. ii. ; and those of the third from ceratobr. ii. to ceratoVir. iii. This supposition is supported by the fact that in other Teleostei there is a fourth ohUquus ventralis and no slip be- tween ceratobrs. iii. and iv., as in Amiurus. 3. MuscuLi Transversi Ventrales, (No. 40, Cuv. ; includes Transv. j^haryngei, Vetter. ) These are two in number, exposed by the dissection required for the pi-eceding muscles. The anterior one, (Fig. 4, TV*), extends between the ceratobr. of either side of the fourth arch, across the lower surface of the branchial apparatus, the posterior (TV^) holds a similar course between the inferior pharyngeals (ceratobr. v.) Action. — They approximate the arches of opposite sides, the an- terior one also drawing them slightly downwards. The placing of the posterior muscle in a different category from the anterior, under the name of pharyngens tra7isversp.s, is'qmte unneces- sary, the two being serially homologous. The origin of these muscles is indicated by the repi-esentative of the anterior one in the Cypri- noids, it being there small and merely part of one of the ohliqvi ventrales. 4. Pharyngo-Clavicularis Externus, (N'o. 36, Cuv.; Branchi- retractor, Ow.) (Fig. 4, PhE.) This muscle and the following one may be seen by the dissection required for the hyobranchialis, et seq., or still better, by dividing a specimen longitudinally exactly in the middle line. The hyopec- toralis will have to be x'emoved from its attachment to the clavicle to expose the origin. The pharipigo-clavicularis ext. arises from the upper sui-face of the clavicle behind the insertion of the hyopec- toralis, and passes upwards, forwards and inwards, to be inserted into the anterior extremity of the inferior pharyngeal (ceratobr. v.) Innervation. — Branch from the first spinal nerve. Action. — Draws the phaiyngeal backwards, downwards and slightly outwards, opposing the transversus and hyobranchialis. 326 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 5. Pharyngo-clavicularis Internus, (No. 37, Cuv. ; Branchi- retractor, Ovv.) (Fig. 4, Ph. In.) A thin band-like muscle, arising from tlie upper surface of the clavicle near the middle line, and is inserted slightly behind the preceding. Innervation. — Same as preceding. Action. — Same as pharyngo-clav. ext. B. — Dorsal Muscles. 6. MascuLi Levatores Branchiales, (Nos. 30-33, Cuv. ; Branchi- levatores and Masto-branchialis, Ow. ; Lev. branch, ext. ebudint., Vetter.) These may be exposed from the inside by the dissection required for the pharyngo-claviculares, or fiom the outside by removing the opercular and hyomandibular cipparatus and detaching the membrane extending from the upper moieties of the gill arches to the under sur- face of the skull. They are seven in number, three being attached to the superior pharyngeal. (a) Arises from a concavity on the posterior part of the under sur- face of the pterotic. It is a round, stout muscle, which passes almost directly downwards, and is inserted into the posterior portion of the upper surface of the superior pharyngeal. (b) Arises from the under surface of the pterotic in front of (a).. It is broad and thin, and runs obliquely forwards to be inserted into the cartilages at the extremity of epibr. i. (c) Arises from the pterotic in front of and slightly lower than (b). It passes down between epibrs. ii. and iii., and is inserted into the anterior portion of the upper surface of the superior pharyngeal. (d) Arises from the sphenotic immediately below the articulation of the hyomandibular. It passes down between epibrs. ii. and iii., and is inserted just behind (c) (with whose fibres it intermingles some- what below) into the antero-external portion of the upper surface of the superior pharyngeal. (e) Is closely related to (d) lying on its outer surface. They arise together, and (e) passing downwards, is inserted into epibr. iii. at the base of its process. (/ ) Arises in ft-ont of (d) and (e) from the sphenotic, and is inserted into the inner extremity of the anterior surface of epibr. ii. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 327 (g) Arises immediately in front of the last, and is inserted into the upper surface of epibr. i, near its inner extremity. Innervation. — (a) Is supplied by (b) by a branch from t7\ branchialis i. vagi; (c), (d) and (e) by branches from tr. branchialis Hi. vagi ; (/) by branch from coalesced tr. brancldalis i. and ii., and {y) by a branch from the glossophary7igeal. Action. — («) By drawing the posterior part of the pharyngeal up- wards, depresses its anterior portion ; (c) and (d) act together, raising the anterior l)order and depi'essing the posterior, and at the same time the fibres of (d) will raise the outer border somewhat. These muscles impart a rocking motion to the superior pharyngeal, which must be very effective in grinding the food against the inferior phaiyngeal ; (b) draws the arches upwards and backwards, depressing the posterior ones ; {e), (/*) and (g) draw the arches directly upwards. Vetter describes these muscles into two gi'oups, ' internal ' and ' external.' The latter in the Cyprinoids are five in number, in Esox three. They are inserted in the former into the pharyngo-brs. i., ii., iii. andiv., the three posterior sending a small slip to the epibr. i., ii. and iii., respectively. The fifth muscle is inserted into the pos- terior portion of the superior pharyngeal, and is therefore equivalent to (a). The external muscles are three, being inserted into the phary- ngobrs. ii. and iii., and epibr. iv. It would be difficult to homolo- gize the arrangement in Amiurus with that of the other described forms, but it is to be noticed that in the former the superior phary- ngeal receives three muscles but only one in the latter. 7. MusccjLi Interarcuales Obliqui Dorsales. These are exposed by the same dissection as the preceding, which must also be removed. They are three in number. The first ai'ises from near the inner extremity of the posterior edge of epibr. i., and runs back above and slightly exterior to the second, to be inserted into the anteiior edge of the upwardly directed process of epibr. iii. The second, large and stout, lies below the first. It arises from the posterior border of epibr. ii., near its inner extremity, and is in- serted into the extremity and anterior edge of process of epibr. iii. The third arises from the inner extremity and anterior edge of the pharyngobrs., between the third and fourth arches, and, pass- ing back, is inserted into the extremity and anterior edge of the process on epibr. iv. 328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Innervation. — The first is supplied by a branch from TV. hranchialis Hi. vagi, and the second and third by a branch from Tr. hranchialis iv. of the same nerve. Action. — They will tend to approximate the arches, and also to tilt the posterior ones upwards. In the Cyprinoids there are two sets of muscles, termed by Vet- ter, ' obliqui dor sales inferiores' and ' ohl. dors, superiores.' In Amiurus no such division can be made, nor is it possible to indicate homologies between the forms. 8. MuscuLi Transversi Dorsales, (Cuv. 34 and 39.) Exposed by removal of the preceding muscles and by the detach- ment of the branchial arches from the skull. They are, like the cor- responding ventral muscles, two in number. The anterior passes be- tween the pharyngobrs. i., ii. and iii., of either side, the posterior be- tween the ossa pharyngea superiora of opposite sides, the posterior fibres passing into the fascia forming the posterior boundary of the branchial cavity. Action. — Approximate the arches of opposite sides. These muscles probably correspond with the transversi dorsales of Perca, the anterior of which extends between epibr. ii., the posterior between pharyngobrs. iii. and iv. of opposite sides. In the Cypri- noids only a single muscle is present, which corresponds to the pos- terior muscle in Amiurus. VI.— MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. These muscles, which are very numerous, one corresponding to each intervertebral region, have usually been desci'ibed as forming one great muscle on each side, the great lateral muscle. This is conveni- ent for description, the various muscles making up the great lateral mass, being serially homologous and almost identical in appearance. Each consists, in its typical form, of a muscular plate, (myomere), the fibres of which run parallel to the long axis of the body, and arise from and are inserted into a fibrous band (myocommay taking 1 These terms are here employed in the same maimer as by Wledersheim in his lately pub- lished " Handbuch der Vergl. Anat. der Wirbelthiere." As originally used by Owen, myocom- ura signified the muscle, the derivation being given as ico^^a— a segment. As here used its derivation will be from KoiJ.ixa — a pause in a sentence. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIUKUS (JATUS. 32i^ origin from tlie centrum and processes of each vertebra. Each layo'niere, therefore, corresponds in its position to a primitive ver- tebra. For the purpose of description, the lateral muscle of each side may be divided into live longitudinal parts, not in all cases perfectly- separable, but still sufficiently so for the purpose. The first, or most superior portion, is not represented anteriorly, but commencing at the posterior ray of the dorsal fin, it runs back- ward to the rays of the caudal fin. It is the muscle termed by Owen the supracarinalis, and by Cuvier le muscle grele super ieur. It consists on either side of a thin band of muscular fibres, formed by the union of slips arising by tendons from the spinous processes as far forwaixl as that of the second vertebra behind the last inter- spinal of the dorsal fin. From their tendinous origins the fibres of each slip run obliquely forwards, the upper fibres being horizontal and continued over to the next myomere. This muscle belongs, as far as its action is concerned, to the dorsal fin, since its function is to depress that structure, but from its origin it is plainly comparable to the series of myomeres of the lateral musculature. The second portion is the lai-gest, and is formed of that part of the lateral muscle above the lateral line. Separated from its fellow of the opposite side, posteriorly, by the supracarinales, it is in con- tact with it anteriorly, and shows no division into myomeres. Posteriorly, however, the segmentation is distinct, especially towards the lower edge, the distinctness vanishing anterioi-ly more rapidl}^ above than below. The myocommata are bent abruptly so as to form an angle pointing backwards, and, accordingly, each myomere fits into the succeeding one, a transverse section of the body cutting through several. Anteriorly this portion is inserted into the supraoccipital bone and spine, the exoccipital, epiotic and pterotic. Fibres also pass to the upper surface of the plate formed by the tx-ansverse pro- cesses of the 3rd and 4th vertebrae, and some of the more superior ones are fastened to the under surface of the plate of the dorsal fin. The third portion lies immediately below the lateral line ; it is not perfectly separable from the second portion, and still less so from the fourth. Its fibres anteriorly run between the transverse processes and ribs, and the myocommata from these, and posteriorly between the myocommata from the haemal arches. In consequence of this the plane of the myomere is curved anteriorly, being horizontal in its upper portion where it is attached to the transverse processes, and vertical 330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITLTE. below where it extends between the ribs. Towanl the anterior -region, where the ribs become shorter and finally vanish, this portion -diminishes in breadth, the most anterior fibres being few in number and inserted into the under surface of the transverse processes of the 2nd and 3rd vertebrie. The fourth portion is broad anteriorly, diminishing rapidly behind. Its fibres anteriorly extend between the lowei' extremi- ties of the ribs and myocommata ; posteriorly between the corres- ponding portions of the myocommata of the tail. The myomeres have a direction downwards and forwards, so that they are at an angle with those of the third portion. Anteriorly and below tlie portions of opposite sides are in contact, owing to the absence in that •region of the fifth portion, and form a broad, stout muscle, which may be called the ' great ventral muscle.' The ^josterior fibres run directly forwards, those arising from the anterior shorter ribs downwards as well, so that there is formed between the anterior fibres of the third portion and those of the fourth a triangular space, the base of which is formed by the supraclavicle. Its floor is formed by a dense -membrane, immediately below which is the swim-bladder. Anteriorly this portion is attached to the posterior border of the clavicle and to the posterior portion of the lower sur- face of the coracoid, so that, besides assisting portions two and three in bending the body laterally, it acts as a retractor of the pectoral arch. The median ventral portion is inserted by an aponeurosis into the posterior cartilaginous arch of the pelvis, forming Owen's pro- tractor isrhii, the more external fibres bending slightly outwards and inserting into the posterior angle of the pelvic bone. The fifth portion corresponds to Owen's infracarinalis, and Cuvier's ^muscle grile inferieur du tronc. It consists of two portions separated by the anal fin. The anterior moiety extends from the posterior cartilaginous arch of the pelvis to the base of the anterior ray of the anal fin. This Owen calls tht; retractor ischii, from its function of pulling the pelvis backwards after it has been drawn forwards by the fourth portion ; in addition to this it has also the power, when the pelvis is fixed, of separating the rays of the anal fin. The posterior half extends between the posterior ray of the anal fin and the caudal fin, and draws the rays of the former backwards, aiding in their separation. These portions arise, similarly to the supracarinalis, from the extremities of the haemal arches. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIL'RUS CATUS. 331 Tnnfirvation.- — The fibres of each myomere ai*e, of course, supplied by the spinal nerve corresponding to it segmeutally. The supra - caHnales are supplied by branches from the ramus lateralis trigemini. The muscular mass immediately in front of the dorsal fin is supplied by the dorsal branch of the fourth spinal, and the musculature anterior to that is supplied by branches from the ram. lat. trig., with which the rami dorsales ii. and Hi. completely unite. The infra- carinales are supplied by branches ai'ising from a plexus formed by the union of the ventral branches of certain spinal nerves. VII.— MUSCLES OF THE PECTORAL ARCH AND FIN. Certain muscles belonging partly to this arch, but acting princi- pally on others, have already been described, as, for instance, the hyopectoralis, and the 'pliaryngo-hyoidei externus and internus. The muscles here to be considered are those which act |)rincipally on the arch, and those which move the fin. Of the former, the ' great ventral muscle,' which acts as a retractor, has already been described. 1. Trapezius. This muscle arises from the posterior portion of the lower surface of the pterotic, a few fibres also coming from the supraclavicle. It passes downwards, expanding as it goes, and is inserted into the base of the ascending portion of the clavicle, the more anterior fibres passing into the dense fascia which forms the posterior wall of the branchial cavity. Innervation. — Twigs from main branch of first spinal nerve. Action. — It draws the pectoral arch upwards, and also makes tense the fascia into which the anterior fibres are inserted. In the forms described by Vetter this muscle does not apparently occur, that named trapezius by him being merely the superficial anterior portion of the dorsal trunk musculatui'e, which extends between the posterior surface of the skull and the post-temporal and supra-clavicular bones The trapezius as here defined corresponds rather with that of the Elasmohranchs. Stannius mentions its occurrence m some Teleosts. Owing to the modification of the anterior fin ray, whereby it can be fixed, and only lowered after a certain amount of rotation, the muscles which move it are difierent to a certain extent from those 24 332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. of other fishes. Owen describes them in Ferca as forming a pair, in two layers, on both the outer and inner sides of the antibrachio- carpal base : and the fibres of one layer run obliquely in a different direction from those of the other layer in both pairs of muscles. The outer pair abducts or protracts the fin, the inner pair adducts or retracts it, sweeping it back into contact witli the flank : the first movement might be called ' extension,' the second, ' flexion.' The muscles in Ainiuruti can be reduced to a similar plan. 2. Abductor superficialis (No. 14, Cuv.; Superficial abductor, Ow.) Consists of two portions, both lying in the groove on the under surface of the horizontal (inner) portion of the clavicle, and covered by the ventral musculature of the trunk. They pass over the bridge formed by the process of the coracoid, which articulates with the anterior ridge of the clavicle, and are inserted into the inferior' sur- faces of the bases of the rays. The anterior portion (Fig. 5, AbS') is the smaller, and is partly concealed by the posterior. It arises from the outer portion of the anterior ridge of the clavicle, and is inserted into the inferior process of the base of the first ray. The posterior portion (AbS^) arises from the posterior ridge and floor of the groove, and is inserted by as many tendons into the bases of the rays, except the first. Innervation. — Supplied by a nerve arising from a branch which is composed of fibres from the external branch of first spinal, and from a branch from the united second and third spinal. Action. — Abduct the fin. When the deep abductors are acting, they will also separate the rays. 3. Abductok profundus (No. 15, Cuv. ; Deep abductor, Ow.) This is also divided into two portions, both of which, however, are inserted into the base of the first ray. The first (Figs. 5 and 6, AbP') lies below (i.e. dorsal to) the abductor sup., and arises from the posterior surface of the anterior ridge of the clavicle and from the floor of the groove. It passes below the bridge formed by the coracoid, and is inserted with the second portion into the base of the semi-circular process of the first ray. The second portion (Figs. 5 and 6, AbP*) arises from the upper (dorsal) surface of the coracoid iThe terms 'inferior' and 'superior,' etc., are applied to the parts as they are when the fin is abducted, i. t. , extended at right angles to the body. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 333 plate, and from the under surface of the portion of the chivicle over- lapping this. It passes below this overlapping portion of the clavicle, in the channel between it and the coracoid, and uniting with the first portion, is inserted with it. Innervation. — The same as for the abd. super/. Action. — This muscle abducts the first ray, and thus assists in abducting the entire tin, but at the same time it gives to the first ray the rotation which is necessary to complete its abduction and fixation. This rotation is brought about by the muscle being in- serted into the upper surface of the ray. The position of the second portion of this muscle appears some- what anomalous, inasmuch as it is apparently in the upper surface of the arch, the abd. super/., and even the other portion of the abd. pro/., lying in its lower surface. An examination of the structure of the arch explains the anomaly. The posterior portion of the arch which unites with its fellow by suture is not the posterior portion of the clavicle as it has been usually described, but is an enlargement of the coracoid. Now this latter lies really on the inferior surface of the arch, and therefore the upper surface of this enlargement is applied to the under surface of the clavicle, and accordingly a muscle lying upon its upper surface may yet lie on the under suiface of the clavicle. Though the two portions of the deep abductor are widely separated at their origins, yet their union before insertion indicates that they originally constituted one muscle, homologous with the deep abductor of Perca. 4. Adductor superficialis. Arises from the inner surface of the ascending portion of the clavicle and from the bridge-like spiculum of bone near its base ; the deeper fibres arising from the radialia. It is inserted into the superior sui-faces of the bases of all the rays, except the first, dividing into a separate tendon for each ray. Innervation. — It is supplied by a branch from the combined second and third spinal nerves. Action. — Adducts the fin. When the fin is abducted the rhythmi- cal and successive action and relaxation of the superficial abductors and adductor will produce an undulatory movement of the fin. 334 procep:dings of the (janadian institute. 5. Adductor Profundus, (No. 16, Cuv.) This muscle (Fig. 5, AdP) lies below the ventral musculature. It arises from the posterior portion of the lower surface of the coracoid, extending inwards as far as the middle line. It passes below the thin bridge-like spiculum of bone on clavicle, and is inserted into the groove at the base of the semi-circuUir process at the base of the first ray. Innervation. — Same nerve that supplied abductors. Action. — It draws the ray, and with it the entire fin, towards the body. When the fin is abducted it acts obliquely on its point of in- sertion, and accordingly gives the rotation necessary to release the ray fi'om its fixation. VIII.— MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND PELVIC FIN. The muscles which act on the pelvis have already been described in ■connection with the trunk musculature. The posterior fibres of the great ventral muscle and the portions of the infracoA-inales act as pro- tractors and retractors of the pelvis. The muscles which arise from the pelvis are those which move the fin. These are arranged in two layers on the ventral and dorsal sui-- faces of the pelvis, those of one side being separated from those of the other by a fibrous septum formed by a continuation backwards of the fascia which separates the two halves of the great ventral mus- culature. The ventral muscles act as abductors, the doi-sal as ad- ductors. 1. A-Bductor Superficialis Pelvis, (Fig. 7, AdS). Arises from the thickened outer edge of the pelvis, and posteriorly from the aponeurosis formed by the median fibres of the ventral muscle (VA) and the septum between the muscles of opposite sides. The outer fibres run almost directly backwards, the inner almost directly outwards, the former being inserted into the base of the outer ray, and the latter into that of the inner one, while the intermediate fibres pass to the intermediate rays dividing imperfectly into separate tendons. Actioyi. — Abducts {i.e., pulls downwards) the fin, and also separates the rays. the myology of amiurus catus. 335 2. Adductor Profundus Pp:lvis. This is seen on removing the preceding. It arises from the surface of the pelvis and from the septum, and is inserted below the preced- ing into the bases of the rays. Action. — Assists the preceding in abduction but does not separate the rays. 3. Abductor Superficialis Pelvis. On cutting through the insertions of the ventral trunk miiscles and bending back or removing the pelvis, the dorsal muscles are exposed. The superficial muscle does not cover the deep one as in the case of its ventral equivalent, but is of a triangular shape, expanding as it passes backwards and inwards to its insertion. It arises from the thickened outer edge of the pelvis ; its outer fibres pass directly back- wards, the inner ones backwards and inwards. It divides imper- fectly into a number of tendons, one being inserted into the upper surface of the base of each ray. Action. — Adducts the fin. The outer fibres also help to separate the rays. 4. Adductor Profundus Pelvis. Lies to the inner side of the preceding. It arises from the dorsal surface of the pelvis and from the septum. Its outer fibres are stout and quickly become tendinous, passing under the superficial muscle, the inner ones being longer. It is inserted into the bases of the rays below the add. sriperf. Action. — Aids the superficial muscle and also tends to approxi- mate the rays. Innervation. — The musculature of the pelvic fin is supplied by branches arising trom a i)lexus formed by the union of the rami vent, spinales, x., xi., xii., xiii., and xiv. A plexus is first formed for the supply of the ventral portion of the muscxilature, but other branches are detached which form a similar plexus for the supply of the dorsal muscles. The arrangement of this portion of the uiusculatui-e of Amiurus corresponds very closely with that described by Cuvier, Stannius, &c., the only marked difference being the limitation in size of the add. super/., which in Perca seems to cover more perfectly the add. 336 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. prof. Davidoff ^ in his valuable papers on the pelvis and pelvic mus- culature of fishes, treats the Teleostei very summarily, merely stating that the differences in musculature and innervation between the Teleosts and Lepidosteus, or, more especially Amia, are quite unim- portant. In comparing Amiurus with his descriptions of either of the two forms mentioned, although the ground-plan is much the same yet the details are much simpler, it being imjjossible in Amiurus to distinguish, for instance, in the ventral musculature a pars riifidia, or in the abd. prof, a caput lonyum from a captd breve. The names em- ployed above for these muscles indicate their equivalency with those of the pectoral arch. IX.— MUSCLES OF THE DORSAL FIN. Owing to the modifications of the anterior rays of the dorsal fin in Ammriibs, their muscles are also modified. Those of the^ive posterior rays have a typical arrangement. The extrinsic muscles are two in number, namely, the anterior superior fibres of the upper portion of the lateral musculature, which pass from the supraoccipital to the anterior portion of the plate which suitports the ilefensive ray, and will have little or no action in moving the fin, and the su/jracarinales which will depress the rays. Of the intrinsic muscles there are two to each ray, an erector and a depressor. The typic.il arrangement of these may be seen in the posterior five i-ays. In these each erector lies anterior to the depres- sor, and arises from the posterior border of the interspinal of the pre- ceding ray. The depressors arise from the anterior border of the in- terspinal of the ray to which each belongs, and from the spinous pro- cess of the vertebra which supports that ray ; each crosses its interspinal obliquely above so as to lie behinil it. The erector is inserted into the anterior and the depressor into the posterior surface of the base of each ray. Of tlie uiu.scles of the next anterior ray, i. e., the fourth^ the de- pressor is normal in its relations, arising from the anterior sui'face of the fourth interspinal and the extremity of the spinous process of the sixth vertebra, and, crossing over the interspinal, is inserted into the I Davidoff— BeitT. zur vergl. Anat. dwr hinteren Gliedmasse der Fische, ii. Th. Morpli. Jahrb. vi , 1880. ^ This will be the third apiiareiit ray, the tlrst having lost all its ray-like apiiearance. See paper on Osteology. THE MYOLOGY OF AMiURUS CATUS. 337 base of the posterior surface of the ray. The erector loses however its proper origin, arising instead from posterior edge of the horizontal plate on which the defensive (3rd) ray rests. The erector of the defensive or third ray lies in the interval be- tween the second and third interspinalia. It arises from the pos- terior edge of the tirst interspinal, the anterior edge of the second, and from the posteiior portion of the expanded process of the fourth vertebra. It passes upwards and is inserted into the anterior surface of the base of the ray. The depressor has also its oi'igin much in- creased. It arises from the sides of the third interspinal, from the anterior surface of the fourth, and from the spinous process of the fifth vertebra, and is inserteil into the base of the anterior surface of the ray. The horse-shoe-shaped or second ray has also an erector and de- pressor. The erector is small, and consists of a few fibres, which run obliquely backwards from their origin from the under surface of the anterior portion of the horizontal plate, and which, passing through the foi'amen in this plate in company with the depressor, are inserted into the anterior surfxce of the extremity of one of the limbs of the ray. I'he depressor is a much stouter muscle, arising from the base and posterior surface of the anteiiorly directed osseous process of the fourth vertebra, which includes the s[)inous process of the third. It passes upwards and backwards through the foramen in the anterior poi'tion of the horizontal plate behind the erector, and is inserted into the extremity of the limb of the ray. The muscles of the first ray are aborted. Innervation. — Supplieil by bi'anches from the ramus lateralis triyemiai with which the R. dors, spinal, unite. Action. — The action of the muscles of the posterior rays are sutii- cieiitly expressed by their names. With regard to those of the second ray there is something to be said, since it is by these that the fixation of the third ray is produced, and its depression pei-mitted. The depressor draws the horse-shoe-shaped ray downwards, so that it slips over the smooth extremity of the interspinal, and its limbs come into apposition with the flanges on the sides of the fourth spinous process which encloses its interspinal. The third or defen- sive ray is attached to the extremity of the second by ligament, so that its depression will now be impossible. In other words, it is the fixation of the second ray which causes the fixation of the third. 338 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Depression of the defensive ray is, of course, produced by its own depressor ; but it is permitted by the action of the erector of the second, wliich draws its ray upwai'ds, setting it astride of its spinal process, and releasing its limbs from their ajjposition Avith the fourth spinous process, and so allowing of its depression. It is to be noticed that the erection of the third and succeeding rays is accompanied or succeeded by the contraction of the depressor of the second and similarly their depression with the action of the second erector. The abnormal relations of these muscles can be explained by the modifications of the parts. Those of the anterior ray, which is almost unrecognizable and firmly fixed, are aborted. The interspinal of the first ray having lost its original relations and become bent upwards from its attachment to the spinous process of the third vertebra until it lies longitudinally, its muscles have lost their attach- ment to it, and so the erector of the second which ought to arise from its posterior sni-face has trausfened its attachment to the more solid horizontal plate. The second depressor ought to arise from the anterior surface of the second interspinal, but the membrane bone which develops round the foui'th vertebra, growing in as it were between the muscle and the interspinal, separates them, and the muscle passes fai'ther forwards on the plate until it I'eaches the base of the anterior ascending process, thereby acquix-ing greater obliquity of action. The erectors and depressors of the third ray have in part their normal relations, but owing to the weight and ossification of the ray they have to move, have become enlarged, and extended their origin beyond the typical limits. The erector of the fourth ray has been crowded out from its original insertion by the aggression of the third depressor, and has become inserted into the horizontal plate where its action is more forcible. , X.— MUSCLES OF THE ANAL FIN. The infrncarinales act to a certain extent upon the rays of the anal fin. The portion named by Owen the ' retractor ischii,' is inserted posteriorly into the base of the anterior ray, the posterior portion is inserted into the base of the posterior ray. Thus, when these act simultaneously, or even when one acts and the other remains fixed, the rays will be divaricated. the myology of amiurus catus. 339' Erectors and Depressors. These are on the same pUin as the muscles of the posterior rays of the dorsal fin. The erectors arise from the interspinals supporting the preceding ray and the hfemal process (or fascia connecting the haemal arches) of the corresponding vertebra. The depressors arise from the interspinals supporting the rays to which they belong. These muscles are concealed by the lateral trunk muscles, which require to be pulled aside to ex[)ose them. Innervatio7i. — Supplied by branches from a longitudinal collecting stem which form a plexus into which the ventral branches of spinal nerves xix.-xxx. enter. Lateral muscles. These are not represented in the dorsal fin. They consist of a number of small muscles, one on each side for each ray, arising from the fascia covering the outer surface of the lateral musculature, and which, passing downwards and towards the median line, are inserted into the lateral surfaces of the bases of the rays ventral to the inser- tion of the erectors and depressors. Innervation. — Supplied by a superficial plexus similar to that which innervates the preceding muscles, and coming from the same spinal nerves. Action. — By the successive contractions of the muscles of one side from before backwards, a corresponding relaxation of the opposing muscle occurring at the same time, the sinuous motion characteristic of the anal fin is produced. XL— MUSCLES OF THE CAUDAL FIN. The muscles of the caudal fin are formed principally of the pos- terior portions of the lateral umscles of the trunk. From the inter- muscular septa of the last few myomeres a fascia (Fig. 8, f) is given otf, which is fastened posteriorly to the bases of the fin-rays. On contraction of the myomeres, this fascia acts on the rays and draws them either to one side or the other, as the case may be. The upper- most and lowermost portions of the myocomma forming the posterior boundary of the last myomere are pi-olonged into separate tendons (Fig. 8, My^ and My') inserted into the abaxiaP surface of the outer- 1 The terras abaxial and axial refer to the surfaces of the ray.s looking respectively away from or towards the axis of the body. 340 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. most two or three rays above and below, and thus act as divaricators of the rays. A deep layer of muscle may be seen on cutting through the attach- ment of the fascia and reflecting the sui>eriioial muscles. It consists of two portions separated by the vertebral column. Owing to the direction taken by the terminal filament of the notochord, the two portions are unsymmetrical, that below the column being greater than that above. The dorsal portion (fig- 'J, d) consists of a single muscle arising from^the spinous processes of the last two or three vertebr*, and passes almost directly backwards. Three or four tendons begin neai' the origin of the muscle, and are inseited into the bases of the upper three or four rays. The ventral portion is divisible into two parts. The upper (Fig- 9, v^) is a triangular muscle, imperfectly separable into two parts lying dorsal to the middle line. It arises by an expanded origin from the broad surface of the fourth hseinal arch below the noto- chordal filament ; passing upwards and backwards it crosses the dorsal portion before its insertion, and dividing into two long tendons is inserted into the axial surfaces of the two u[)per fin rays. It pulls them downwards towards the middle line as well as laterally, and thus acts as an opponent of the uppermost tendons of the super- ficial layer, and aids the intrinsic muscles. The lower part forms a broadly triangular muscular mass (Fig. 9, v-), the base resting on the fin rays. It arises from the ' flossentrager ' and the bodies and haemal processes of the last two or three vertebrse, the very lowest portions arising fi-om the extremities of the haemal processes of the fourth and fifth vertebne (counting from behind) not reaching up to the centra. Numerous tendons run along the muscle, as a rule one for each ray, into the bases of which they are inserted. The lowermost portiors are inserted into the rays imbedded in the adipose tissue, which are not functionally parts of the fin. This part of the muscle aids the superficial musculature, the lower fibres serving to approximate the rays. The intrinsic muscles (Fig. 8, It), lie immediately below the integu- ment posteriorly to the attachment of the fascia. One muscle is sup- plied to each ray of the fin proper, none being inserted into the fins in the adipose tissue. Each arises from the abaxial surface of a ray, and is inserted into the axial surface of the next external i.e., dorsal oi- ventral, as the case may be,) to it. Certain of the fibres of each THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 341 muscle do not arise from tlie succeeding axial ray but may be traced across it and several others to the fascia near the axial line, so that, viewed as a whole, their arrangement resembles that of a fan. The central muscles above and below lie entirely on the axial surface of the ray to which they are attached, and, since there is no niedian impaired ray, their fibres arise from the fascia between them and partly also from the fascia of the superficial muscle. These intrinsic muscles approximate the rays, being aided by the upper and lowei- portions of the deep nuisculature and opposing the upper and lower portions of the superficial muscles. Innervation. — The intrinsic muscles are supplied from a plexus formed by ventral branches of spinal nerves xxxiii.-xli. The muscles above the spinal cord are supplied by branches from R. lat. trigeni., and from the small posterior E. clorsales spinales. On comparing the myological characters of the head of a Teleost with those of a Selachian, the first point that strikes one is the ab- sence in the former of the well-marked constrictors found superfici- ally in the latter ; in other words, the direction of the muscle fibres in the Teleosts appears to be more longitudinal than in the Selach- ians, and therefore the myomeres more similar to those of the trunk. It has been shown by Balfour and Gcette that the musculature of the head develops in exactly the same manner as that of the trunk, i.e., from the primitive vertebrae, and is, therefore, segmental in its ori- gin, a myomere lying between the arches of each pair of vertebrae of which the head is composed. In Arnphioxus there is no difterentia- tion of the myomeres, the musculature from the tail to the head con- sisting of a series of similar myomeres separated by similar myocom- mata\ and therefore represents more closely tlie original tyi)e than does the arrangement in either the Selachians or the Teleosts. Ac- cordingly, the Teleosts would at first seem to present a more primi- tive type than do the Selachians, but a closer investigation shows this to be a mistake. When one takes into consideration the presence of an osseous, and therefore more or less immovable, cranial skeleton in the Teleosts, the absence of the constrictors is easily undex'stood. But even then one would suppose that in the more movable parts the constrictors I The ventral musculature of Ainphioxus would interfere with this generalization were it not that it must be considered as belonging to a different category from tlie trtink musculature. 34'i PROCEEDINGS OF THE (CANADIAN INSTITUTE. would persist to a greater or less extent. And so indeed they have done. In the Teleosts there are as representatives of the constrictors, the intermandibularis, the add. and lev. arc. pal., lev. and add. operc, the transver.'si dorsales and ventrales of the bi-anchial arches, the interarcuales ventrales, etc. In these muscles the course of the fibres is parallel to a plane at right angles to the axis of the body, and the}' act more or less as constrictors of the parts to which they are attached. The greater mass of the constrictors of the Selachians is in relation to the branchial cavity. Whei-e the parts about the pharynx are comparatively elastic, constj'ictor muscles will be, of course, of great use in diminishing that cavity, and so forcing the water out through the gills ; but when, on the other hand, the parts become less movable through ossification, other arrangements for the propulsion of the water appear. Membrane bones ai'e developed to act as valves and protections to the gills, a portion of the constrictor musculature persisting, attached to them, and the lessening of the size of the pharyngeal cavity is produced by the elevation of certain parts in the floor of the mouth, and only slightly by the approxima- tion of the walls by constrictors. These latter, therefore, become limited to certain parts, instead of forming a more or less unbi'oken sheet over the branchial region. Bearing in mind the fact that in the head there were originally a number of myomeres, as repi-esented by the head-cavities, which have been specialized into a number of distinct muscles ; and that to a very large extent the muscle fibres have lost their original direction, it is possible by means of the inner\'atiou to refer to their respective myomeres the various muscles. The Cranial Muscles. — Leaving out of consideration the muscles of the eyeball, which belong to a myomere or myomeres in front of the mouth, the first muscle segment to be considered will be that supplied by the fifth nerve. Belonging to this there is. in the first place, the add. niand., the fibres of which have, to a large extent, a longitudinal direction, and which extends between the mandibular and hyoid arches. Reasoning from analogy one would have ex- pected to find this muscle and those belonging to the same myomere extending between the first prieoral and the mandibular arches, but we find them in reality lying superficially to certain muscles sup- plied by the facial nerve. The development of the first prteoral (or palatine) arch being in comparison with the succeeding ones so THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. .143 limited, may explain the want of relation of the myomere to it, but still one would exi)ect to find the muscles in relation to parts situ- ated near it, i.e., in front of the orlnt. In the Selachians this is the case ; the origin of the add. inand. is in these forms entirely in front of the eye, and its action is essentially that of a constrictor. It seems that there has been first of all a gradual passage backwards of the origin of the add. mand., (and also of the other trigeminal muscles), \mtil in the Teleosts it has come to lie entirely behind the orbit, and that secondarily, there has been a downward growth of the muscle, so that the fibres have extended on to the hyomandihular, (fee, the lowermost assuming a horizontal direction. The relations of the ori- gin of the add. mand. in the Cyfrinoids, Perca and Esox, are in sup- port of this supposition. Vetter has pointed out that the add. mand. of the Cyprinoids is very mixch specialized, that of Perca slightly less so, and that of Esox, to which Amiurus is most comparable in this matter, more primitive than either ; and we find that in Esox, the most primitive form, the muscle arises in part from the cranial bones, (viz., the pterotic and sphenotic), whereas in the others the origin has passed lower down. Why there should have been this passage backwards of the muscle to behind the orbit, it is rather diflicult to say. Perhaps an explana- tion may be found in the fact that the muscle acts in the Teleosts more or less as a retractor of the mouth parts, ju.stifyino- in this respect Owen's designation of it as the retractor oris. If an upward movement of the mandible were all that was required, the arrange- ment which obtains in the Elasmobi-anchs would certainly be most effective, whereas, if retraction were also required, such a backward progression would be necessary. It may also be pointed out that since the muscle lies entirely behind the eyeball, the size of that structure will necessarily assist in determining the extent of the limitation of the orisin to the hyoid arch. In Amiurus where the eye is so very small, the origin persists much further forward than in any of the other forms examined, in all of which the eyeball is comparatively laro-e. The adductor mandibulse of the Teleosts has been derived from a constrictor muscle ; its relations to the hyoid arch have been produced by a necessity for its action as a^^retractor oris ; and the extent of its departure from its original position is partly determined by the size of the eyeball. 344 PllOCEEDlNGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Tlie nature of the add. tentacnli has already Ijeen considered, it being merely a separation of the deeper fibres of the add. nuind. The lev. arc. pal. is plainly derived from a constrictor, but its function has been changed by the development of osseous structures, so that instead of assisting in the contraction of the pharyngeal cavity, it enlai'ges it by raising the hyomandibular apparatus, etc. The reason why a trigeminal muscle should act as the opponent of muscles supplied by the seventh nerve, is that the forward growth, superficially of the hyoidean muscles was prevented by the presence in primitive foi'ins of the spiracle. The dil. ojyerc. is evidently a ])ortion of the lev. arc. pal. adapted to the necessities of the opercular apparatus. The incongi'uity between its action and its innervation is even more apparent than in the lev. arc. pal., but is explicable in the same way as Vetter has pointed out. The intermandibularis is without doubt the representative of the most anteiior ventral portions of the Selachian constrictor. It is supplied by both the fifth and the seventh nerve, and instead, there- fore, of being assigned to the group of muscles supplied by the fifth nerve, as Vetter has done, it must be considered as representing the ventral portion of a constrictor layer lying between the palatine and mandibular and the mandibular and hyoidean arches. The anterior moiety of such a layer would be supplied by the fifth, and the pos- terior by the seventh nerve. In the Teleosts this layer has con- tracted in breadth very much, until it forms merely a narrow band between the extremities of the mandibular arch, but, with the grad- ual narrowing, there has been, so to speak, a corresponding lengthen- ing out of the innervating branch from the facialis and a shortening of that from the trigeminus, so that even when limited to the mandi- bular arch it still possesses its hyoidean nerve. Just as all the muscles of the mandibular arch (i.e., those supplied by the fi^fth nerve), are derived from a constrictor, so are all those of the hyoid arch, {i.e., those supplied by the seventh nerve.) The add. arc. pal. has apparently an abnormal position, extending between the skull and the palatine, metapterygoid and hyomandibular, thus com- ing into relation not only with the arches to which it belongs but also with the arch in front of it. The only explanation to be given for this is that the muscle has extended its insertion forwards as neces- sity required it. In Amiurus, owing to the necessity for motion of the palatine for the purpose of erecting (abducting) the tentacle sup- THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 345- porting maxilla, the muscle has extended farther forwards than in any other Teleosts hitherto described. The muscles ai'e very mobile structures, modification being in them more frequent and more com- plete than in the nerves, Arc. The add. hyonidud., add. operc. and lev. operc., are all very closely related, not only in position but also in innervation. They belonged originally to the same constrictor layer from which the add. arc. pal. developed, constituting the posterior part of it. The lev. operc. is a specialization of the superficial fibres of the most posterior portion — that portion from which also the add. operc. originated. These three muscles and the add. arc. pal. are comparable to the doi-sal portion of the constrictor of the Elasmobranchs ; the geniohyoid eics, htjohyoi- deus and portion of the intermand. being comparable to its ventral portion. The Branchial Muscles. — The muscles supplied by the glossophary- ngeal and vagus are small in bulk when compared with those already discussed. In the Teleosts the muscles chiefly concerned in the re- spiratory act are not those belonging strictly to the branchial but those of the mandibular and hyoid arches. It is by means of these that the cavity of the mouth is increased, and thus an inflow of water produced, and it is by them also that the water is foi'ced out below the opercular apparatus, passing in its way over the branchial fila- ments. Accordingly, we find the branchial muscles somewhat retro- graded in bulk from the condition seen in the Elasmobranchs, and this retrogression has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in size and strength of the hyoidean and mandibular muscles. I regret exceedingly that I cannot give details in regard to the innervation of many of the muscles, but, nevertheless, there are certain points which may be indicated. Most of the muscles of the branchial arches may also be reduced to the constrictor type, however much they may be modified. In the first place the lev. hra.tvh. are evidently the superior portions of the consti'ictor musculature, as are also the mm. trans, dors, and interarc. obi. dors. The latter have been slightly diverted from their constrictor direction, but as their name implies ai'e still somewhat oblique. The lateral portion of the original constrictor has entirely aborted in Amiurus, though in certain forms, as Esox, muscles are found at the angles of the arches, i.e., where the upper limbs join the lower. No such muscles could, however, be detected in Amiurus. 346 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The ventral muscles partly vepresent the ventral portions of the constrictors. Certain of them retain their original transverse direc- tion as the transv. vent, and the ohliqui vent. The hyohranchialeaf however, I feel disposed to consider as comparable to the ventral musculature of the trunk, in which case they must be considered as i-etaining for the greater part their original direction, the lateral portions merging into the constrictor type. A reason for this sup- position is the explanation it affords for the dissimilarities between these muscles in various forms, and for the very evident relation which exists between the ohliqui vent, and the slips from the hyohranch. As these points have already been treated of in connec- tion with the description of the latter muscles, it will not be neces- sary to repeat them here. The absence of any similar longitudinal muscles in the preceding arches points to the opposite view, but owing to the great changes which these have undergone, they may have disappeared by a con- tinuation of the process by which the i7itermanofcrn.— Mitth aus d. Zool. Station zu Neaple, Vol V., 1884. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 349 A greater number of segments (5) appear, however, to enter into its composition. It may be pointed out that the direction of the fin is not exactly similar to that of the pectoral fin, which is more normal in this regard. One may suppose, however, that the absence of a true pelvic arch has something to do with this. If one imagines a partially aboi'ted pectoral arch in the normal position, with the me- tapterygials, etc., directed somewhat backwards, one would have an intermediate stage between what obtains in the pectoral and pelvic fins of the Teleosts. The Dorsal Fin Muscles. — The innervation of the erectores and depressores of the doi'sal fin is similar to that for the supracarinales, i.e., the rcmi. lal. trigem. acts as a collector for the dorsal branches of the spinal nerves, and gives off branches to the muscles. It would seem, from the relations of these muscles, and also from their inner- vation, that they are serially homologous with the supracarinales. Dohrn's views^ on the subject of the impaired fins receives confirma- tion from the paired nature of the muscles, and still more from the fact that a blood-vessel passes horizontally along through the base of each ray, the ray splitting readily upwards from this channel, point- ing to a coalescence of two parts, one on either side of the middle line, in the formation of the fin. The Anal Fin Muscles. — With regard to the erectores and depres- sores of this fin, the remarks made on those of the fin just described apply equally well. They are really serially homologous with the infracarinales. The lateral muscles of the anal fin are, however, of an entirely different nature. Their innervation is from a superficial plexus similar to that supplying the erectores and depressores. The muscles lie completely outside the fascia covering the lateral muscles of the trunk, and the plexus which supplies them is peculiar in being in a similar manner superficial and formed from a plexus. The pro- bability is that the muscles are dermal in their nature, and that the plexus is a secondary one, produced from the deeper plexus already present as the muscles gradually developed from the dermal tissue. The Caudal Fin Muscles. — These are nearly all modified portions of the lateral musculature of the trunk. The inti'insic muscles are not, however, but must probably be referred to the class of dermal muscles. The innervation of the dorsal portions of the fin and of the anterior continuation of that dorsal portion is interesting in showing the relations of these parts to the dorsal and adipose fins. 1 Dohrn. — Loc. cit. 350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The various systems of muscles have now been considered, and it merely remains to give tables indicating the general relations of the various systems to each other and referring the various muscles to their proper segments. The muscles or their representatives belong- ing to pre-mandibular arches, I will not include in the table, as they have not been considered in the preceding pages. The first table indicates the relations of the cranial muscles, the second those of the muscles of the trunk, including under that term all the body posterior to the head. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. Nertks. Dorsal Constrictor Musci.es. Ventral Lonoitudinal Muscles. V. f Adductor mandibnlae. Add. tentaculi, ) t Levator arcus palatini, Dilatator operculi. ( Wanting. v. & VII. Intermandibularis. VII. C Adductor arcus palatini, Add. hyomandib., ^ i Add. operculi. Levator operculi, V ( Geniohyoideus, Hyohyoideus, ) Wanting. IX. & X. ( Levatnres branehiales, Musculi transversi ) i dorsales, Interarcuales obliqui dorsales, V ( Transversi ventrales, Obliqui ventrales. ) Hyobranchialls. MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. Kbrves. Dorsal Portion. Lateral Portion, (Upper & Lower Di>ision). Ventral Portion 1-3 Wanting. < Trapezius (.') Muscles of the pectoral fin. Lateral musculature, (anterior part). Hyopectoralis. Ph ary ngo-claviculares. Ventral musculature, (anterior part). 3-30 ^ Muscles of the dorsal fin. •< Supracarinales, ( (anterior portion). Muscles of Pelvic fin. 1 Lateral musculature, ■< (median part). 1 Ventral musculature, (liostenor part). Infracarinales, (anterior part). Muscles of Anal fin (except the lateral muscles. 30-End /- Supracarinales, 1 (posterior portion). J Dorsal muscles of V Caudal fin. Lateral musculature, (posterior portion). Greater portion of muscles of Caudal fin. Infracarinales, (posterior portion). Lower muscles of Caudal fin. Dermal Muscles. Lateral muscles of Anal fin, and the intrinsic muscles of Caudal. THE MYOLOGY OF AMIURUS CATUS. 351 As regards the trapezius, I cannot state positively whether it «hould come in the first or second column of the table, and with regard to how far the muscles on the dorsal region immediately behind the skull correspond to the supracarinales and muscles of the dorsal fin, I am equally uncertain. It is probable that the muscles corresponding to these portions have, in the anterior spinal region, completely disappeared, in consequence of the specialization of the anterior vertebrae. The fact that the erector of the second spine of the dorsal fin is attached to the base of the fourth spinous process, and this on its part is united with the posterior wall of the skull /closing in above the other vertebrae, seems to favour this view. GuELPH, June 3rd, 1884. [352] ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. BY PROF. R. RAMSAY WRIGHT, TORONTO. [Read he/ore the Canadian Institute, January the 12th, ISSlt.] In the course of the investigations, the results of which are de- tailed in the following pages, some featiires in connection with the nervous system and sense organs of Amiurus appeared to me of special interest. These have been elaborated at the expense of other points which would prove no doubt eqiially worthy of closer exami- nation, but which did not at first sight appear so promising as fields of enquiry. The treatment is consequently not monographical, although for the sake of completeness a short account has been in- serted of some structures which have not been subjected to special study. Of the sense organs, the olfactory does not appear to be either more or less developed than is usual in Teleosts. The eyes on the other hand are extremely small, a condition which is compensated for by the exquisite development of tactile sensibility on the head and especially on the barblets. The latter serve to increase the range of the tactile sense ; especially is this the case with those which are car- ried on the ends of the modified superior maxillary bones, for their muscular connections enable them to be swept freely at the sides of the head. Also, the auditory organ and the sense organs lodged in the canals of the lateral line and head are well developed, and the former is connected with the air-bladder in such a manner as to indi- cate functional relationships of the highest importance. The importance of these sense-organs is siifficiently indicated by the large size of the nerves distributed to them, and the central connec- tions of the latter naturally determine many peculiarities in the architecture of the central nervous system. Considerable space is. SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 353 therefore devoted to the origin and distribution of the trigeminus group and to the auditory apparatus. The following order is observed in the description of the various parts : — I. Central nervous system. II. Peripheral nervous system. III. Sense organs. I. CENTRAL NKRVOUS SYSTEM. .■1.— THE BRAIN. As in most other Teleosts the cranial cavity of Amiurus is by no means filled up by the brain, which is surrounded by a large quan- tity of areolar connective tissue lich in vessels and fat. This tissue is continued backwards into the neural canal and into the cavities in which the semicircular canals are lodged, to which, and indeed to the whole auditory labyrinth, the tissue acts as ' perilymph.' The recent observations of Mayser^ and Rabl-Riickhard- have con- firmed Stieda's interpretation of the various parts of the Teleost brain, and are thus entirely opposed to the views expressed by Fritsch in his " XJntersuchungen fiber den feineren Bau des Fiscli- gehirns." As was to be expected from the alfinity of the Siluroids to the Cyprinoids, I have found Mayser's researches, which are chiefly based on the latter group, of the greatest service in studyino- the brain of Amiurux. The points in which that genus differs from Cyprinus I shall call attention to in the coui'se of my description My observations have, however, not been extended to the study of the finer structure of the brain, and the sections figured are rather intended to complete the topographical description than to furnish an exhaustive account of the nerve-fibre tracts. Owing to the abundant perilymphatic tissue it is easy to remove the roof of the brain case without injuring the brain. The appear- ance of the organ when so exposed is represented in Fig. 13, PI. I. In front we have the so-called cerebral hemispheres {CH) which after the brain has been hardened appear to be two solid masses separated by a longitudinal medial groove, but which in the recent condition are seen to be two oval thickenings in the floor of a sac whose roof and walls are extremely thin and transparent, and whose cavity is the ventriculus comviunis of the secondary forebrain, prosencephalon. In comparison with many other Teleostean forms the cerebral hemis- pheres of Amiurus are of laige size. From the ventral sui-face of 1 Zeit. wiss. Zool. XXXVI. ^Arch. Anat. Phys. 1882-3. 354 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. each, in front of the liilus where the vessels for the fore-brain enter, arises the long slender olfactory tract (Fig. 14). With its neighbour it runs along the floor of the brain case near the middle line till it reaches the olfactory lobe which lies directly against the nasal sac, so that the numerous olfactory nerves are extremely short. It is only recently that Rabl-Ruckhard has pointed out that each olfactory tract and lobe is a hollow outgrowth of the secondary fore-bx-ain, carrying with it a process of the ventrictilus comTnvmis. Each tract instead of being a solid cord is in fact a tube, the roof and sides of which are extremely thin, while the floor is so thickened as nearly to fill the cavity of the tube. In young specimens where the olfactory tract is extremely short and the olfactory lobe still lies close to the cerebral hemispheres it is easy enough to demonstrate this, but it becomes more difiicult to do so in the adult, when the tracts have become much elongated. From the dorsal aspect it is impossible to see anything of the primary forebrain or thalaniencephalon, for both it and the medial por- tion of the I'oof of the midbrain are covered by the gi-eat impair cerebelhon {CB), which, in fact, partly overlaps the cerebral hemi- spheres. At each side of the cerebellum, however, are to be seen the lateral parts of the midbrain, the optic lobes (LO), which in accordance with the small size of the eyes are themselves very small. Behind these the cerebellum is continuous by its posterolateral angles with the tubpj'cula acustica, which are themselves joined behind the cerebellum by a bridge of gray matter which roofs over the fotu-th ventricle in front of the trigeminal lobes. The great size of the cerebellum, its direction forwards so as to overlap the forebrain, and the great size of the hcbercula acustica are prominent peculiarities of the brain of Ami'K,rus. In accordance with the great size of the fifth and vagus nerves, the lobes of the medulla oblongata in which these take origin are proportionately large. They project from the floor of the fourth ventricle, so as to leave merely an irregular sagittal slit in place of the usual rhoraboidal groove. Of the two pairs of lobes, the anterior or trigeminal (^LT) are the larger, and one of them not uncommonly projects beyond the middle line so as to encroach on that of the other side. No fusion ever takes place, as is the case with the Cyprinoids, so that there is always the slit-like fourth ventricle between the trigeminal lobes of Amiurics, whereas in the Cyi)rinoi(ls they are coalesced into one lobus imjyar. The SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 355 vagus lobes are never so large as tbe trigeminal ; tlie slit between them is always wider, and no encroachment beyond the middle line is observable. The slit becomes shallower posteriorly and does not in the posterior planes of the origin of the second root of the vagus> extend down to the central canal of the cord. This region is that o^ the coinmissura cerebri infima of Haller, where the posterior columns of the medulla are divaricated from each other so as to leave a wide V-shaped slit on section, which, however, does not extend to the central canal. The posterior boundary of this slit may be regarded as the point of passage of the medulla oblongata into the spinal cord, a point which is indicated by no marked constriction, for immediately behind the vagus lobes the brain tapers oflF quite gradually into the cord. From the ventral aspect various other parts of the brain may be seen. (Fig- 14.) The ventral surface of the cerebral hemispheres is marked by the formation of a lateral lobe which gives on trans- verse section the outline represented in Fig. 18, PL V. Immediately behind the cerebral hemispheres is the crossing of the optic nerves, which can be followed in the form of the optic tracts towards the -optic lobes. Behind the optic chiasma is the commissura transversa of Haller ; the latter structure lies on the antei'ior jjart of the floor ■of the primary forebrain or thalamencephalon. We shall see after- wards that the roof of this part of the brain is extremely short from before backwards ; its floor on the other hand is extraordinarily developed, for not only is there the large ticber civereum with the hypophysis connected with it, but also the large lobi in/eriores (LI), and the saccus vasculosus enclosed between the posterior tips of these, all of which structui-es contain prolongations from the third ventricle. Owing to the small size of the optic lobes these are barely visible from the ventral aspect, and the floor of the midbrain being chiefly developed into the swellings, tori semicirculai'es, which nearly fill up the optic lobes, is practically excluded from the basal aspect of the brain. The ganglion interpedunculare (Fig. 7, PL V.) represents the boundary between the midbi'ain and oblongata. The points of origin of most of the cranial nerves can be studied from the ventral aspect. Those of the olfactory and optic tracts have already been referred to above. The third nerve (oculoinotorius) leaves the base of the midbrain just in front of the posterior tip of 356 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. the lobus inferior which must he raised to see its point of emergence. Further up on the lateral aspect of the brain, immediately behind the optic lobe, emerges the foui-th nerve (trochlearis). and the posterior tip of the optic lobe must be pushed forwards to see its precise point of emei-gence. The sixth nerve {abducens) leaves the medulla oblongata by two slender strands on each side which take their origin near the ventral longitudinal fissure. All of these nerves after leaving the brain associate themselves with the trigeminus group in a way which neces- sitates the description of their further course with that nerve. The trigeminus group not only includes the fifth nerve, but also the seventh. The motor root of the latter is quite distinct from the trigeminal roots, emerging as it does in front of the auditory nerve, and immediately directing itself forward to join the trigeminal com- plex. (Fig. 15, PI. I.) Formerly this motor root was considered to be the only representative of the facial, but first Balfour detected in embryo Selachians a dorsal root taking its course through the orbit, and more recently van Wijhe discovered the part which the R. dorsalis VII. plays in the formation of the ramus ophthalmicus saperjicialis. In the adult Amiurus it is impossible to isolate any E. dorsalis VII. from the neighbouring roots of the trigeminus, and I shall consequently only describe the motor root as iV. VII., referring to the others as acustic roots of the trigeminal complex as they take origin from the ttcberculum acusticum,. Curiously Friant has committed the mistake^ of according solely to these branches [R. buccalis and ophthalmicus superficialis) the name of seventh nerve, and of supposing that their destination is " animer tons les muscles sous-cutanes ou peauciers de la face ainsi que ceux qui entourent I'orifice nasal " ! He describes the proper motor facial as R. hyoideo-mandibularis of the trigeminus. In studying the roots of the trigeminal complex after the ganglion has been detached from the brain, Fig. 16, PI, I., the two principal roots are readily seen separated by a white band which stretches for- wards from the root of the auditory nerve. The upper and more posterior of these, the dorsal geniculated root of the trigeminus- (H. v., gen. dors.), can be followed at once into the trigeminal lobe, the lower, which is somewhat anterior in position and considerably 1 Recherches anatomiques 8ui' les nerfs Trijumeau et Facial des poissons osseux. Nancy 1879. p. 84. SENSE ORGANS OF AMIURUS. 357' more clender, extends transversely inwards into the medulla oblongata, and also backwards into the spinal cord. It includes the transverse and ascending roots of the trigeminus {JV. V., asc. et trails.). In addi- tion to these three other more superficial roots enter the ganglionic complex, and their points of origin can be seen without dissection. Fig. 15, PI. I. One of these has been already referred to as the motor root of the seventh (N. VII.), the others, which take origin high up from beneath the crest of the tuberculum acusticum, ai-e what I have referred to as acustic roots of the trigeminus. It is desirable at this stage to examine the branches which leave the trigeminal complex, and then to study the mode in which the various roots contribute to the formation of these. Examining the ganglionic complex in situ from the medial aspect (Fig. 17, PI. I.), the strong Hamus lateralis V. is seen ascending obliquely backwards to the foramen through which it escapes in the occipital region. From the dorsal edge, various other doi'sal branches arise, some extremely slender (d), which may only reach the mem- branes, or penetrate into the skull, others, the Ramus otictis (B. ot.), and Ramus ophthalmicus superficialis (R. o. s.), are of greater im- portance. The course of the former^ is outwards and upwards to its foramen in the sphenotic, ol the latter forwards to its foramen above that, through which the larger Ramus ojjhthalmicus profundus escapes. The latter nerve carries with it on its medial aspect the trochlearis, but entirely within its sheath, so that it {N. IV.) can only be recognized in sections of the complex by its broad fibres contrasting with the narrow fibres of the ophthalmicus. Cutting across the R. ophthalmicus jjrofundus the slender ciliary nerve, R. ciliaris, is seen to issue behind and outside it by a distinct foramen. The rest of the trigeminal group emerges by three distinct apertures, which are frequently not entirely surrounded by bone, but merely separated by bony spicules. They are for the infero-medial strand, the supero-lateral strand and the facialis. The two latter frequently issue together, but there may be a separating spicule of bone. I have selected the expressions infero-medial and supero-lateral strands for the bulk of the trigeminus group, because it is only after emer- gence through the skull, that the rearrangement into R. maxillaris, mandibularis, the gastric epithelium is replaced at tlie pyloric valve by epithelium proper to the midgut. Edinger found in the carp these ciypts surrounded by lymph vessels imbedded in the fibrillse of the submucosa. Snch has been my observations with these structures in the cat-fish. Soluble Prussian blue injected by means of a hypodermic syringe into the wall of the intestine, generally tilled vessels of irregular size sur- I'ounding the crypts. The arteries of the intestine pass through the muscular layers at right angles and reaching the submucosa, the large branches run for a short distance parallel to the surface, and give oft' divisions which ascend into the mucosa and between the crypts. Their twigs then form meshes embracing the crypts. The capillaries run immediately under the superficial epithelium. Fine venous capillaries are con- tinued from these and unite as they pi'ogress towards the submucosa into larger branches. The arterial branches in the summit of a fold also form a connected mesh of fine capillaries. ENDUUT. The muscular walls of the endgut or rectuna assume a thickness greater than in the midgut. The outer longitudinal fibres become arranged in separate bundles postei-iorly which go to insert them- selves in the walls of the vent. The circular layer has a thickness relative to the longitudinal one pi'oportionally greater than in the midgut. Large bundles from it grow inward carrying the sub- mucosa with them between the two surfaces of the valve separating the midgut and endgut. This acts as a sphincter muscle in making the valve tense. The folds of the mucous surface of the endgut are less conspicuous than they are in the midgut. They are fewer in number, narrow and longitudinally an-anged. No transverse furrows on these give the appearance of villi. The crypts are about as numerous as in the midgut, but narrower and longer. Crypts are present on both surfaces of the valve, and like its epithelium pre- sent transitional forms between those of the midgut and those of the endgut. The epithelium is constituted of cylinder cells not differing in shape from those of the midgut. They are, however, not so long, that is, the portion outside the nucleus is shorter, the periphei-al wall is thinner, and appears to pass without clear distinction into the 406 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ])roto[>lasmic contents below, which are of the same character as those of the superficial cells of the midgut. The peripheral wall rarely shows pore canals ; when these are present they are few to the cell. The beaker cells are like those of the midgut in every respect, excepting that their theca are rounder and shorter. The crypts are clothed with an epithelium like that of the ordinary surface. As the vent is approached the height of the epithelial cells grows less and less, until finally at the vent it is columnar or even flattened. In the latter half of the endgut clavate cells have been sometimes observed difiering not from the description given of these above. The artej-ies and capillaries are arranged in the endgut just as in the midgut. The course of the arteries in the submucosa is parallel to the course of the folds, to evei-y one of which there is apparently a large submucous branch. THE LIVER. The liver of the cat-fish is situated at the anterior termination of the belly cavity, and is closely applied both to the aponeurotic wall and to the oesophagus. The peritoneal covering of the aponeu- rotic wall is reflected over the hepatic veins to the liver, while a fold of the mesenteric membrane, embracing the oesophagus exj)and8 to cover the liver, and, passing behind it, is closely attached to the surface of the gall-bladder to the pancreatic- and bile-ducts. The liver is in weight about from one-thirtieth to one-twentieth that of the body as a whole. Its color is reddish-brown, — pathologi- cal conditions, which also increase or diminish its weight, vary its color, esj^ecially during the summer months. I liave in several cases observed an extremely yellow color, due, probably, to the resorption of the bile. There is no pigment in any pai't of the liver beyond the proper pigment of the bile and such blotchings as sometimes were present were due to no discoverable reason. The liver is easily lacerable, and is of a jelly-like consistency. This latter proi)erty is due to oily fluids which show their presence ill pieces hardened in alcohol by the strong ' fishy' smell. The lobated formation of the liver is not distinctly marked. The lateral halves are quite similar, although that of the left Tuay have quite a number of lappits distributed on its posterior surface which are absent trom the right. The bridge connecting the two portions is not as think as the remainder of tlie mass of the liver. A sulcus ALIMKNTARY CANAL, ETC., OF AMIUKUS CATUS. 407 on t'le postero-inferior surface fonus a line of division over which sometimes a lappet from the left stretches on the right half for a lit- tle distance. The lobes distinguishable on both halves, in the majority of cases observed, are as follows : — An antero-lateral lobe, not constant, stretching upward and back- ward ; it is generally long and slender. A postero-lateral, somewhat smaller than the preceding, and directed horizontally outwards. A postero-median, large, directed backward, that of the i-ight side almost covering the gall-bladder. These lobes may or may not be the same in size for both halves, as a considerable amount of variation is always present. The lobulation on the surface of the liver in the cat-fish does not appear prominently or clearly. This is owing to the smallness of the lobules and to their passing almost without interruption into one another. In the gorged condition of the liver they can be easily seen as polygonal spaces, and measure about 0'5 mm. on the average. The gall-bladder is of elongated oval shape, with its long axis directed straight backwards. Anteriorly it passes into an arch-like cystic duct toward the middle line which receives 8-10 hepatocystic ducts in its course and becomes the ductus choledochus, at first large but decreasing in diameter backwards. It enters into the intestine in intimate connection with the pancreatic duct which lies above it. Both open separately, each on papillje on the inner surface of the transversely ducted portion of the mid-gut, about two centimetres from the pyloric constriction. There are two coats to the liver. The outermost, the serosa, easily separable, is simply the peritoneal fold, and having all the characters of the mesenteric tissue. The other, more closely applied and inside the former, is ap[)arently of flat epitheloid structures, hardly isolable from the close arrangement of the hepatic capillaries on which they lie. They may be analogous to the cortical cells described by Eberth' in the amphibian liver. The liver of the cat-fish is very poor in interlobular tissue. A fair amount enters the portal canal, but following the finer ramifications of the portal vein, the pancreas increases in volume, its acini twining 1 Archiv fur Mikr. Anat.— Bd. III., page 430. 408 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. around the walls of the vein leaving but little room for other struc- tures than the gall-ducts and hepatic arteries. In the finer interlo- bular septa picrocarmine reveals very little connective tissue. The arrangement of the blood vessels in the liver is, on the whole, the same as in the higher vertebrates. There are, however, minor differences. The interlobular veinlets, before they pass into the radial capillaries, are closely gathered together to form as it were a wall to separate two neighbouring lobules which are thereby sharply defined. The conr.se of the radial capillaries from the central vein outwai'ds is very irregular. The spaces enclosed by two adjacent radials and their transverse branches, instead of being uniformly quadrilateral, as in higher vertebrates, are more or less rounded. The different gall-ducts are lined with an outer fibrous and an inner epithelial coat. The fibrous layer is formed of connective tis- sue fibrils and plain muscle fibres, the latter situated inside the for- mer, which passes into the differently arranged scanty connective tissue surrounding the duct. Staining with picrocarmine easily reveals this arrangement. The inner or lining coat of epithelium consists of a single layer of short cylinder cells. They are slightly granular, and their nuclei are placed near the bases of the respective cells. A peripheral wall is present. As the ducts become more finely branched these cells become columnar, then oval ; at the same time the fibrous layer loses its connective fibrils, those of the muscu- lar coat becoming much decreased in quantity and finally vanishing. When the connective tissue is absent but the muscular fibrils still present, the epithelium becomes scale-like, forming, when the muscle fibres vanish, a thin wall for the lumen of the gall capillary. I have not succeeded in following them to their terminations in the hepatic cylinders, but believe that they terminate, as Hering and others describe, by their epithelium becoming exchanged for liver- cells, which here, however, do not possess a thickened border disposed toward the lumen of the gall capillary. As already stated, very little if any connective tissue enters be- tween the lobules, and thence the sole supporting stroma is formed by the blood capillaries. There is a complete absence of those cells, other than hepatic, which sometimes characterize the livers of higher ver- tebrates. Kupffer's stellate cells, which are rendered remarkably distinct in other livers by methylene blue, cannot be detected here. ALIMENTARY CANAL, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 409 The hepatic cells are of small diameter, speaking comparatively, measuring on the overage 12^, the smallest observed being 9 5//, and the largest twice that size. Their characteristics are most easily observed in the fresh state, when they are obtained by drawing the edge of a knife over the cut surface of the liver. Examined in salt solution, at the ordinary temperature of the room, the single cells exhibit curious movements and forms. This fact has been fully de- scribeil for the hepatic cells of mammalian livers. The movement is usually designated as an amoeboid one, but is sensibly different from it, as no protrusion of processes occurs. In the majority of cases a cir- cular constriction appears at one j)ole of the cell, and slowly travels toward the opposite pole ; when at the equator of the cell it gives the appearance of a dumb-bell. Before this constriction has disap- peared a second one may arise, and even a third, at the same pole. The locomotion arising from this may be little or nothing. An in- crease of temperature has no effect on the rapidity of the contraction or constriction. A flow of the contents of the cell fi-om one part to the other during contraction occurs, while that portion of the cell which forms a thin sheath for it apparently brings about the contrac- tions or constrictions. The sheath is quite free from granules, and formed of a clear substance not marked off definitely from the granu- lar central mass other than by the absence of granules. When in the resting state the cell is perfectly spherical, although such is not the case in the fresh liver. Young cat-fishes of about one to two inches in length, offer livers which when carefully re- moved give good opportunities on account of the thinness of the lobes for observing therefrom any movement of the cell. The liver cell contains beside large nuclei of 3 /x and 4 // in diam- eter, oil globules, and a few pigment granules. In the nucleus may be one or more nucleolar bodies. In the cell itself, in fresh condi- tion, there can be observed five processes radiating from the nucleus. Hardened in Miiller's fluid or in a solution of potassic bichromate, the tine intracellular reticulation can be observed to be unequally distributed throughout the cell. It seems to be aggregated around the nucleus, and from there radiates to the side of the cell which borders on the gall capillary, i.e., away from the blood capillary. The reticulation encloses nearly all the pigmented granules, the re- .mainder of the cell being pretty free from them. 410 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Kupffer has described delicate offshoots of the gall capillary pene- trating the cell and terminating in swollen cavities occupied by oil globules. I have tried to verify such a description as far as the liver of the cat-fish is concerned, and although I have employed arti- ficial injections of Berlin blue and natural injections of sodium sulphiiuiigodate, yet I have found nothing answering to Kupff'er's view. In the artificial injection which Kupffer employed it is quite possible that lateral canals penetrating the hepatic cells with bulb- ous terminations may have been due to mechanical causes. The hepatic cells are arranged in a definite way, and this arrange- ment appears different according as the lobule is cut longitudinally or transversely. When cut longitudinally the capillaries, when they run parallel, are separated by cylinders usually of two row& of cells, this cylinder being interrupted at every fifth or sixth cell b}^ a branch between the two capillaries. Between the two rows of cells will always be found a gall capillary. In this case the resemblance to the tubular gland is very striking. It is also to be noted that nuclei of the hepatic cells are situated nearest the blood capillary. When the lobule is cut transversely, towards its centre there are a number of capillaries also cut across and placed in the field of the microscope at pretty definite positions. Around these capillaries the hepatic cells are circularly arranged in such a way that the circles are contiguous and that invariably two cells separate two neighbour- ing capillaries. Here, again, the gall capillary is to be found be- tween the two cells. When the section contains a number of capil- laries cut regularly across, and at a position where they are joined by cross branches, such a view as that given in Fig. 10, is obtained. In this figure the resemblance to a gland tubule is complete. If the fresh isolated cell be carefully observed no trace of thicken- ing or marking on the cell surface can be found ; when the gall capillary was situated where the blood capillary cannot now be dis- tinguished. This has special importance regarding the question of the absence or of the independent existence of the gall capillary. Hering^ maintained that the liver cells were a direct continuation of the epithelium clothing the coarser gall ducts and that the liver cells enclose between them the gall capillaries as intercellular passages. 1 Sitzungberichte der Wiener Akad., Ad. LIV., and Arch, fur Mikr. Anat, Bd. III. ALIMENTARY CANAL, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 411 Eberth^ also describes them as ending in the same manner, but also finds that they are lined by a doubly contoured membrane very delicate and browning in silver nitrate injections. This membrane is no where isolable or independent of the cells in contact with it, and is absent altogether in fishes. Haidenhain and Peszke,'' by fill- ing the gall capillaries with sodium sulphindigodate and macerating the liver tissue in a solution of potassic bichromate and sodium chloride obtained the capillaries filled with the blue compound com- pletely isolated as minute pieces of tubules, formed of a doubly con- toured membrane otherwise apparently structureless. My observations agree in the main with those of Hering and Eberth : in the case of the latter author as far as the structure of the capillaries in fishes is concerned. In uninjected livers it is almost impossible to find the gall capillary. On the other hand, when injected artificially or by the natural method, it is of considerable breadth. Injection of silver nitrate will but fix and harden the adjacent portions of the liver cells, and thus is formed, apparently only, a capillary membrane. Peszke's method will not show the presence of an independent capillary in fishes. From these facts I would conclude that the capillary is an intercellular passage, which in hardened sections is absent, but which during life exists by reason of the power of the cells to select and deposit in that particulai- position the necessary products of its secre- tion. If the cell is in active secretion the passage has a greater diameter. If secreted products be absent, or if they be dissolved out, as is the case in hardening reagents, the passage disappears. The presence or absence of it therefoi'e is much like the presence or absence of a lumen in the gastric glands in some vertebrates. The gall-bladder is not folded to any extent on its inner surface when in the fresh condition. In hardened portions when the muscular coat has shrunken, the mucous coat is thrown into minute folds. These two coats are not sharply distinguishable. The outer bundles of muscular tissue are longitudinally arranged, but in quantity are very few. They frequently take an oblique direction, especially about the mouth of the bladder and in the cystic duct. The inner circularly arranged coat of muscular fibres is by far the thickest. Into it the fibrous tissue of the mucous coat enters and frequently 1 Virchow's Archiv, Bd. 39, and Arch, fiir Mikr. Anat., Bd. IIL ■•* Hermann's Hamlbuch der Physiologie, Bd. V. 29 41 '2 PKOCEKDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. separates the fibres into bundles. Both muscular coats may at posi- tions quite change their directions, so as to leave it doubtful if there is moi-e than one coat. Fibrous connective tissue enveloped these on the outside, and on this again is superposed the mesentery. The mucous coat contains coarse connective tissue fibres and has imbedded in it numerous arterial branches which divide and rise under the epithelium layer. Very few lymph corpuscles were observed. Beneath the epithelium the fibres become arranged more densely and five the appearance of a muscularis mucosae. They form a basement on which the epithelium sits. This stratum of densely arrano^ed fibres runs up into minute ridges in which small arterial capillaries and venous capillaries anastomose. The epithelium consists in the main portion of the bladder of long cylinder cells, slender, but of larger transverse diametei in its mouth and in the cystic duct. The protoplasm is very finely granular and surrounds a large oval nucleus. The outer peripheral border, easily lost in reagents, does not possess the striation that Virchow^ describes for other vertelirates. The basal processes ai-e very slender, often divide into two or more branches, and interlace with the fibres of the mucosa. In the main portion of the gall-bladder there are but few glandular follicles or crypts. In the arched portion of the duct of the bladder they are much more numerous, and a few may be of such length that a portion of it is bent so as to be parallel with the mucous layer. The cells lining them are cylindrical or rather columnar, which in sections never exhibit a peripheral border, at least it is not manifest ill fresh. A cross section of the tubules very often reveals slimy masses in the lumen. The cells do not differ otherwise from those of the general surface, and may have each a peripheral box'der like them. THE PANCREAS. For nearl}' halt a century before 1873 the pi-esence or absence of a pancreas in the Teleost fishes liad been one of the disputed ques- tions among anatomists. It may be convenient to go briefly into the history of this dispute, as it led to the discovery ultimately of a true pancreas. 1 Virchow's Arehiv, Bd. XI., page 574, ALIMENTAKY CANAL, ETC., OF AMITRUS CATUS. 413 As early as 1827, Weber' described the presence of a duct iii 'Cyprinus carpio running parallel to the ductus choledochus and originating in the central lobe of the liver ; as he found no distinct pancreas, he regarded the portion of liver mentioned as performing its function, since it differed from tht; rest of the liver in color, form, attachment to the intestine, and division into lobules. A little later Brandt and Ratzeburg described a glandular body in Silurus glanis, much like the liver and extended behind itenvelo])- ing the ductus choledochus. This organ, they believe, to ]>e the panci-eas. Cuvier'-' maintained that the pyloric coeca were glandular organs performing the functions of a pancreas. Alessandrini^ discovei'ed a pancreas in the pike and the sturgeon, the latter having also a complicated pyloric appendage. Johannes Miiller* and Steller sepai'ately showed that in some fishes both pancreas and pyloric coeca may coexist, while in others the former, as a well developed organ, may occur in the absence of the latter. The genus Lota was mentioned as an example of the first-named condition and Silurus and Murmna of the latter condition. The organ described as the })ancreas in the pike by Weber, Cuvier believed to be })art of the liver proper, and added that he had seen an excretory duct in a verv large Silurus, opening into the midgut and terminating in the right lobe of the liver. This duct he re- garded as an hepato-intestinal duct. The view that the organ generally regarded as the liver in fishes is divided into a bile-secreting portion and a trypsin-secreting portion was held by Stannius. Bernard'"^ in 1856 described a pancreas present in the intestines of an unknown specimen of fish and also in the turbot. In those fishes in which a pancreas was not observed, Bernard supposed that its functions were performed by the mucous coats of the midgut. Nothing important was added to these observations until 1873, when Legouis" determined the presence of a pancreas in all fishes studied by him. His work has been the most important yet as lay- 1 Meckal's Arcliiy, 1S27. 2 Cuvier et Valeucieuues. Histoire Naturelle des Poissous, Paris, 182S. 3 Novi Comiueu. Acad. Scieii. Institut, Boaon, 1836, Tome I[. * MuUer's Archiv, 1S40, page 132. 6 Lecoas de Physiologie experimeatale. Tome II., page 47S. ^Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1873. 414 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTK. ing at rest a question of long standing, although his statements were contradicted by Krukenberg^ and confirmed by Nussbaum^. Cajetan^,^ a pupil of the latter, studied and described the panci*eas in Anguilla vulgaris, Esox lucms, Trutta fario, Perca Jiuviatilis and Cobitis barbatula, and tests his results by digestive experiments in several cases. There are no pyloric appendages in the cat-tish. ]n searching the intestines microscropically a pancreas also is not to be found. I could find no organ in Amhirus as that described by Brandt and Ratzeburg as occurring in Silurus. On the other hand, in endeavoring to find the duct described in the last named fish by Cuvier, I discovered one which but little answered to it, but which as I found afterwards is the duct of the true pancreas. This pancreatic duct runs almost parallel to the ductus choledochus and above it. The pancreatic duct is always the paler of the two, as the other takes more or less the color of bile. Half way between the intestine and the liver it divides into two or three branches, which run above the arched portion of the ductus choledochus into the liver substance along with the cystic ducts on both the right and. left side of the middle line. In the larger channel cat-fishes the duct is large enough to admit the insertion of a canula for the })urposes of injection, and by this means the branching of the duct can be easily perceived. The finer tubules, i. e., those of the gland proper, cannot be injected. If the interlobular branches of the portal vein be injected with some material whicli will fill them to the exclusion of the finer branches, and if a section of liver thus injected be made, in such a section we can at once see the distribution of the gland tubules of the pancreas. They are found to be arranged some circularly, some obliquely and some longitudinally about the interlobular vein, the arrangement being so distinct as at once to mark them ofi" from the surrounding hepatic tissue. The cellular elements of these acini are light colored when compared to the hepatic cells, and take a lighter or a darker stain than those, according to the staining fluid used. Fig. 1 1 gives a view of such a section. It is there observed, as is usual in other sections, that the gall ducts are to be found outside of the pancreatic tubules, some of which are cut across. 1 Kukne's Physiol. Uutersueli. Bd. II. p. 385. ^Loc.eit. ^Loc.cit. ALIMENTARY CANAL, ETC., OP AMIURUS CATUS. 415 A glycei'ine extract of the liver digests fibrin in a 0*5 % solution ■of sodium bicai'bonate, requiring but a few hours for a piece of moderate size. In young cat-fishes, of from one to two inches in length, and from which I made a series of sections in the neighbourhood of the liver and midgut, I was unable to find a trace of pancreas. This is possibly to be explained, as Bernard suggested, by the supposition that digestion by the stomach is quite sufficient for the food of young fishes. It is also to be observed that hepatic tissue does not penetrate between all the capillary vessels of the liver. It is quite safe to say that the panci'eas is of later development, and is connected with the portal vein in some such way as to be dragged by it into the liver when the latter increases in size. The fact discovered by Krukenberg that the extracts of the livers of different fishes accomplished a tryptic digestion may be explained by the })ossible distribution of the pancreas in the liver in the way that is describe I above. Among those fishes studied by this physi- ologist, were Fei'ca JiuviatUis, Labrax lupus, Belone rostrata, Crenila- brus i)(ivo, Dentex vulgaris, Trigla Idrundo, Sargus Rondeletii, Gobius niger, &e. In Perca Jluviatilis, according to Cajetan, the pancreatic ducts entwine about the portal branches till they sink into the liver. It may be added that it is possible in this fish, as well as in those given above, that the panci'eas follows the portal vein as it does in the oat- fish. .The organs so affected are, however, by no means to be denomi- nated a hepato-pancx'eas, as that name is understood in invertebrate anatomy. A more careful study of the pancreatic tubules in the cat-fish shows that it undergoes the ordinary changes effected during diges- tion. In a fasting condition the cells are filled with granules, the round nucleus situated near the outer part of the cell, and the whole stains feebly in carmine. When the liver is cut out four or five hours after the fish has been feeding, the granules are gathered into a region adjacent to the lumen of the gland, and this portion stains feebly, the rest of the cell strongly, in carmine. Fig. 11 gives a representation of this stage. I could oljserve a membrana propria for these gland tubules as little as in those of the gastric glands. The fibres of the connective tissue surrounding them are arranged in a dense sheath which serves all the purposes of membi-ane. 416 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTlTaTE. THE AIR-BLADDER. The air-bladder of the cat-fish takes up in length about one half that of the belly cavity, and measures across at its broadest end from one-half to two-thirds its length. It narrows posterioily and has a rounded termination, while the anterior face is broad and is covered by the head portion of the renal oi-gans. It is covered up on its lower surface by the peritoneal folds. The dorsal sui'face has a groove into which the vertebral column fits, elsewhere the surface is even. The duct arises from it at the commencement of the middle third, and passes forward and down- Avard to the oesophagus. Tliere are three cavities in the aii'- bladder, two of which each communicate with a tliird, the anterior one. The long axis of the last named is directed transversely and occupies the broadest portion of the bladder. The long axis of the two others are parallel and are directed backward. The connection of each of these with the anterior one is by an aperture narrower than its own transverse diameter. It is with the anterior chamber that the duct communi- cates, opening at its posterior lower edge. There are two coats in the wall of the air-bladder. The outer white, and of some thickness, exists as such at all j^oints, except a part of the doi'sal surface. On the sickle-like auditory ossicle and along several vertebral segments it is but a thin transparent membrane, closely connected with and united to the ossicles and vertebrse. Opposite the opening of the duct into the bladder the membrane again becomes thick and opacpxe white. This coat alone is connected with the auditory ossicles, and to its thickness, as well as to its constituents, it owes some of its stiffness. The inner coat is very thin and membrane like, and is conformed to the walls of the various chambers. Between the median walls of the posterior chambers is a single wall due to the fusion of the two outer coats. The outer coat also suxTounds and enters closely into the constrictions of tlie ojjenings of the posterior chambers into the anterior one. The outer coat is formed of connective tissue fibres and elastic- fibres. The former are long, needle-like, and whitish as if calcified. The stifihess of the outer coat is due wholly to these fibres. When put into dilute acetic acid for several hours they swell up into a ALIMKNTAKY CANAL, ETC., OF AMIUKIS CATVS. 417 jelly-like mass. These fibres are arranged in every direction, l)ut for the most ])art longitudinally, tlien transvei'sely. The longitudinal fibres are generally outside. In acetic acid the jelly mass shows stringy portions arranged parallel, not constantly, however. Tlie second set, or elastic fibres, are very numerous, and show an exten- sive branching and inter-communication sometimes surrounding, sometimes penetrating, the bimdles of gelatinous matter. The inner coat, the membranous wall of the bladder cavities, con- sists of a layer of flat hexagonal cells, and outside this a fibi-ous layer. The flattened epithelium is disposed alike over the inner surface and does not differ in development over the capillaries, as has been de- scribed to be the case in other fishes. The contents of each cell are clear and the nucleus is round and conspicuous. The mucous layer beneath consists of connective tissue fibres not very closely arranged. No elastic fibres were found. No muscle fibres could be made out either plain or striated. The blood supply of the air-bladdei- is obtained from the arteria adiaca, the vessel entering the organ at the origin of the duct, and, after giving several branches to the outer coat, it enters the inner membranous coat, and is there ultimately distributed. It divides into two main bi'anches and several smaller ones ; the main branches pass one to each side on the walls of the posterior chambers, while the smaller ones traverse the walls of the anterior chamber. Each bi'anch is accom))auied by a vein arranged both in such a manner that the two are in [)arallel course and side by side. Both branch simultaneously, and the different bi-anches are again connected after some distance by capillaries. It also often happens that the area supplied by one branch also possesses some of the capillaries and finer twigs of a second branch. Usually each fine arterial branch has a region set apart, and there it ultimately divides into fine anastom- osing capillaries which are drained by various capillaries also origin- ating in the same way. The largei' venous branches arti very often varicose, appearing often like sinuses. There is no blood-giand in the air-bladder of Amiurus in the sense in which that word is used. The blood of the air-bladder is collected in the mesenteric veins and carried onward to the heart. [418] THE BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, DUCTLESS GLANDS, AND URO- GENITAL SYSTEM OF AMIURUS CATUS. BY T. McKENZFE, B.A., Fellow of University College, Toronto. The object of the present paper is to complete, as far as possible, the description of the anatomy o^ Aminrus. The works of Stannius', Owen^ and Wiedersheim^, have furnished the basis for the points de- scribed, but special papers have also been consulted. L THE BLOOD- V^ASCULAR SYSTEM. This has been carefully worked out in the different groups of fishes, and as the parts and rehitions in Avmtrus are in the main similar to those of otlier Teleostei, such general knowledge is assumed. THE HEART. The heart is situated entirely in front of the first vertebra. The pefricardiuin which encloses it, is in contact with the coracoids on the ventral side. The hyopectorales muscles which arise from the inner curved surface of the coracoids form the lateral boundaries, and coming together anteriorly give a triangular shape to the cardiac space. Above, it is covered by the fioor of the mouth and the copulae of the posterior branchial arches or their equivalents. The posterior boundary is formed ventrally by the upward curve of the posterior border of the coracoids, and dorsally by the aponeurotic membrane. The stout coracoids are about 30 mm. wide in the median line, and extend from behind the sinus venosus to the upward curve of the truncus arteriosus. It is plain that no other spot in the body out- side the brain-case would aflbrd such security to this vital organ. The outer coat of the pericardium is more or less attached to the sur- rounding surfaces. The heart lies free within the pericardium, which is attached anteriorly to the trunciis and post eriorly to the dorsal and > Handbuch der Anatoiuie der WirbtdUiiere. 2 Anatomy of Vertebritus. 3 Lelirbueh der vergl. Anat. der Wirbultliiere. BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMtURUS CATUS. 419 vent'-al surfaces of the sinus venosus and ductus Cuvieri, and con- tinued over their anterior surfaces. The sinus venosus lies between the })ericardium and the ' aponeu- rotic wall,' and is but little larger than the sinus-like vessels of which it is the termination. Its anterior surface is attached to the posterior surface of the atrium in the median line of the body. The opening between them is guarded by a pair of large semi-lunar valves which not uncommonly become united at their extremities and pre- sent the appearance of a diaphragm with a central opening, the ordi- nary slit, 3"5 mm. in length, l>eing i-educed to a more or less rounded passage as small as 1 mm. in diameter. The atrium is a flattened chamber, 1 4 mm. long and nearly as broad at the posterior end. It lies to the left and over the dorsal surface of the ventricle, extending from behind its apex to the anter- ior extremity of the bulbus. The thick rounded posterior border of the atrium is divided into two lobes ; laterally and anteriorly the chamber thins out to an edge and narrows anteriorly to a blunt apex. The wall is formed of connective tissue and is very thin. To this wall the trabecuke carnce are attached and run in various directions along the wall and across the chamber, leaving, however, several free spaces. The largest of these spaces is opposite the opening into the ventricle, and the muscle-bundles which surround it are directed to- ward this point and expel the blood by drawing the wall of the atrium toward the opening, while by the same contraction they ex- pand it. The wall of the atrium surrounding the ostivm, atro-ventri- culare is strengthened by a muscular ring and thickening of the con- nective tissue. The union of the atrium and ventricle is effected by the attachment of tJie outer surfaces of the connective tissue of each wall. Where this takes place the connective tissue sends strong in- terlacing processes into the muscular ring and the nuiscles of the ventricle. At places muscular tissue also passes from one to the other. Where not interrupted by these muscles the connective tissue of the wall joins similar tissue covering the inner surface of the mus- cular ring to which the pair of vertical semi-lunar valves closing the opening ai'e attached. The ventricle is somewhat cylindrical in form and slightly curved towards the dorsal surface. The connective tissue-coat is as thick ;is that of the atrium. The muscular tissue is divided into two distinct portions, an outer layer, the muscles of the wall, and within this the 420 PHOCEEDIXGS OB" THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. muscles of the trabecular. Processes from the connective tissue layer pass in among the muscles of the wall, and, uniting again, form an inner layer to which the muscles of the traVjeculte are attached. The fasciculi of the latter resemble those of the ati-ium, but are placed more closely together. Their arrangement leaves a central cavity which extends froni behind the atro -ventricular opening to the bul- bus, and many smaller spaces as well. The surface of the ventricle is smooth, and between the two sets of muscles tliere are no lymph- spaces as described by Kasem-Beck and J. DogieP in their investiga- tions on the heart of Esox and Acvpenser. There ted to demon- sti'ate the endothelial layers described by the above-mentioned inves- tigators, I doubt the existence of the inner one in Amiurus, for at points the muscle-fibres of the one layer pass into the other as do also the connective tissue fibres, except at the spaces. In comparing the structure of the ventricle with that of the atrium the only diffei'ence is that the former has a dense muscular layer without blood-.spaces developed between the connective tissue layer and the traheculce carnoi, which greatly strengthens the wall. The heart of such fishes as are supposed to possess double walls should be further studied, and especially its development. The base of the fndbics is provided with a narrow neck which is inserted into the central cavity of the ventricle to which it is attached by its outer surface. At this opening a pair of valves is attached to the muscles of the ventricle sira ilar to those attached to the atrium. Their extremities, however, extend forward as ridges upon the wall of the bulbus to strengthen them. Curving upward the bulbus passes into the trimcits arteriosus, which runs almost at right angles to the axis of the ventricle. The walls of the bulbvis, venti-icle and atrium are well supplied with blood-vessels. An artery passes along the dorsal surface of the bul- bus to the ventricle ; where it divides in two stems which distribute themselves on each lateral surface. Another artery runs along the ventral surface of the bulbus and ventricle and gives off a branch on the former to the dorsal surface of the latter. The veins pass back- ' Beitrag zur Keniit. d. .Structur u. Function d. Hcrzend. Knoclien-fische, Zeit. fiir wiss. Zoo Vol. XXXVII., p. 247. BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 421 wards over the atrium and sinus venosus. Tliese vessels are confined to the connective and muscular tissue of the walls, the main stems lying wholly in the connective tissue layer. THE BRANCHIAL SYSTEM. The hrnnchial arteries to the third and fourth arches arise from the truncus arteriosus by a single stem which runs backwards and. iipwards to the anterior end of the median ventral ridge of the triangular cartilage uniting the fourth and fifth ai-ches. Over this it divides into two stems, which immediately divide again, tlie anterior divisions curving forwards and outwards to the third arch, and the posterior pair backwards and outwards to the fourth arch. This arrangement is not uncommon among Teleosts according to Stannius.^ The truncus passing forward gives off the arteries to the second and first arches, not in pairs, but alternately from the dorsal surface, first to the I'ight and then to the left, ending in the left stem of the first arch. The general features of the hranchial arches have already been desci-ibed by Prof. McMurrich in his paper on the osteology of Aniiurns.' I shall therefore content myself with following the course of the blood through them, without attempting a description of their histological structure, which has been exhaustively done for other Teleosts by Riess,^ Hyrtl, Di-oscher.* ikc. The art. hranchinles enter the gills upon the posterior side of the arch, nearly 10 mm. from the termination of the filaments which are continued forwards upon the membrane, in posterior arches beyond the attachment of the adjacent arch. To supply these filaments with blood the artery sends back a branch after entering the canal. In the canal the branchial artery is placed farthest from the bottom of the groove, beneath the rudimentary diaphragm, and gives oft' a. branch to each filament of the double row. The artery passes out- wards upon the inner side of the filament, while the vein, which gathers the blood from the capillaries, returns upon the outer side and passes around the branchial artery to enter the branchial vein, which lies along the bottom of the groove. The branchial neiwe lies directly between the artery and vein. ^Loc. cit., p. 240. 2 Viiie^ p. 292. 3 Arch, fiir Nat., 1881, Jahrg. 47, p. 582. * Arch, fiir Nat, 1882, Jharg. 48, Heft. L & 11. 422 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The venre branchiales leave the gills at the dorsal end of the arch much as the arteries entered at the ventral end. Both the artery and vein of the tirst arch are straight vessels entering and leaving near the termination of the filaments, and so not requiring a branch. The fourth vein leaves the gill below the bend in the arch. Each branchial vein sends a branch backwards to the hyoid and mandibular regions while yet within the gill. THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. The course and relation of the branchial veins (PI. VIII., Fig. 1, I., II., III., IV.) are as follows. The first branchial vein runs at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the skull, and near its base gives off two branches (c. ex. and c. in.), which I have called the external and internal carotids. It then turns backwards along the ventral surface of the anterior cardinal, and is joined by the second branchial vein. The vessel thus formed unites with its fellow from the opposite side to form the aorta descendens. An artery to the pharynx, &c., springs from it at varying points. The vessels formed by the union of the tliirJ and fourth brancliial veins enter from each side immediately below. The tirst branch from the descending aorta, after the junction of all the branchial veins, is a small impair artery from its median ventral surface to the ' head-kidney.' (Fig. 1, hk.) Immediately behind it, arises the arteria cceliaco-niesenterica (Fig. 1, an), a large single stem which supplies all the viscera, except the kidney. It passes downward between the air-bladder and the head-kidney, and to the right of the oesophagus. The first branch supplies the air- bladder, the second the oesophagus and stomach, the third is the hepatic artery, the next branches pass to the anterior end of the intestinal tract, and then the splenic artery is given off. Here the mesenteric artery divides into two stems which follow respectively the right and left walls of the mesenteric fold and supply by many nearly parallel branches each its own half of the intestine.* The left vis. that branch situated upon tlie attached portion of the mesentery is the larger, and from it springs the genital artery near the anterior end of these organs. One other impair artery is given off" into tlie Ijody cavity at its 1 For the distribution in the various organs of the branches of the arteria cceliaco-mesenterica, xeeptinj,' tlie siileiiie unil genital arteries, see Mr. Macallum's paper. BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 42-S posterior end. This vessel passes directly downward through the substance of the kidney to the mesentery, and anastomosing with the left mesenteric artery is distributed with it to the rectum. The descending aorta behind the origin of the coeliaco-mesenteric artery enters a deejj groove (PI. IV., Fig. 7) on the ventral surface of the fourth vertebra to pass the attachment of the aii'-bladder. Throughout the rest of its course in the body-cavity it lies upon the rounded surfaces of the centra. In the tail as the art. catidalis it occupies the bottom of a groove on the centra, and is fui"ther pro- tected by the haemal arches and by the short spines which arise from the sides of the groove between these arches. A longitudinal dorsal ridge projects into its lumen as in some other forms. The arteries given off to the trunk and tail arrange themselves in three sets, neural, lateral and hmmal. Each pair of neural and lateral branches arise by common stems, which, passing around the vertebra, give off the lateral arteries about the middle of the centrum, and are then continued upwards along the posterior surface of the neural spine as the neui'al ai'teries. The lateral arteries pass outwards by the division in the lateral trunk musculature along the 'lateral line,' giving branches to these muscles. The neural arteries divide into branches which run between the lateral muscles and supracarinales, and branches which pass upwards in the median line between the svipracarinales. The hoimnl arteries have similar relations to the ventral muscles. They arise independently, and run upon the anterior surface of the haemal spine. Throughout the length of the body cavity these arteries (iatercostales) run with the nerves between the peritoneal lining and the muscles of the body wall. These vessels present the same irregulaiity in Amiurus as is found in other Teleostei. A large number have entirely disappeared or been greatly reduced in size, and the blood is distributed by large single stems, now from the right side and now from the left, giving branches to both sides of the body and spreading over from two to live myomeres. The lateral arteries and the hajmal arteries of the body cavity can, from their position, supply only one-half of the body, and conse- quently present greater regularity than the others. 424 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The art. cuadalis terminates by dividing beneath the second last centrum into two branches, which pass upwards and backwards on the sides of the last centrum beneath its hajmal spines, which are widened by being attached to small lateral processes on the lower portion of the body so as to afford space and protection for these vessels. A horizontal ledge of bone which projects from each side of the sjiine A (Fig. 5, PI. II.) almost closes a bony foramen with the spines. As a rule, the right branch distributes itself entirely at this point by dorsal and ventral branches to the deep muscles of the caudal fin, and branches along the surface of the flat spines to its intrinsic muscles. The left branch, however, after giving off similar vessels sends a large branch along the dor.sal surface of the bony ledge and thence in the median line between the spines B and C, (Fig. 5, PI. II.) to the tail-fin. The fin rays consist of two separate halves, each half being con- vex on its outer surface and dee^jly grooved on the inner. They are attached by their base on each side of the flat spines of the bodyless vertebrae, and so form an arch in which a canal luns the entire width of the fin. The artery upon entering this canal divides into a dorsal and a ventral stem, from which a branch passes out between the halves of each ray, or several of these branches may arise by a common stem. The artery in the ray usually divides into two which run pai'allel to each other. In sections of the fin a layer of connective tissue is seen to occupy the median plane j^assing between the halves of the rays where it forms a median canal for the arteries and two lateral canals for the veins. The short rays of the dorsal margin are sup2)lied by the ai'tei'ies to the muscles mentioned above. The dorsal and ventral fins, with their musculature, are supplied by two or three of the ordinary spinal arteries somewhat enlarged at these points. The art. renales ai-e given oft' from the hremal vessels passing around the kidney, of which there are usuall}^ thi"ee or four paii"S sjjecially enlarged. The most posterior of these is continued to the pelvic fins entering on the posterior surface. A large branch is also continued forward to the muscles attached to the pelvic arch. The arrangement of the vessels in the caudal fin may be taken as repre- sentative of what occurs in the others. BLOOD-VASCULAU SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIUKUS CATUS. 425 The subclavian arteries are the largest and most anterior [)air of the inter costales. They arise from the dorsal surface of the aorta descendens in the groove upon the fourth vertebra, and issue by foramina be- tween it and the third. They pass outwards along the anterior surface of the transverse processes of the fourth vertebra beneath the strong peritoneal continuation of the aponeurotic membrane. Each artery gives oft' two branches to the museles of this region and then turns for- wards, over the head-kidney and downwards to the median spine of the scapula, at which point it distributes itself. Three or four branches to the anterior portion of the ventral musculatui-e of the trunk ; a brancli to the pectoral fin and its muscles, which also sends a strong branch backwards on the outer surface of the muscles of the wall, and a branch which passes forwards beneath the girdle and anastomoses with certain of the hyoidean arteries are suj)plied by it. The arteries of the head have already been mentioned. It remains to add a short description of their relations and distribution. A few small twigs arise at the junction of the branchial veins for the aponeurotic wall and the fatty tissue on the base of the skull. An artery from the united first and second branchial veins, which I shall designate as pharyngo-branchial, passes down around the pharynx, which it supplies with blood, and also gives branches to the posterior lev. branchiales, and in some cases the 2)hari/7i(/o-branchiales. Small arteries for the anterior lev. branchiales arise from the first bi'anchial vein near the origin of the carotids. The A. carotis externa aiises from the dorsal surface of the first branchial vein at the angle where it turns backwards to join the second. (PL VIII. Fig. 1, c.ex). There is neither carotis co^nmn- nis nor cir cuius cephalicus in Amiurus. It passes upwards over the lateral surface of the N. trigeminus on to its dorsal surface and along the ramus mandibularis towards the eye. A large branch supplies the abductor mandibulfe turning backwards beneath the muscle and also sending a branch through the mesethomoid bone to the nasal sac. A second branch passes beneath and behind the eye, also terminating at the nasal cavity. After giving a branch to the antero-lateral poi'tion of the roof of the mouth, the i-emainder of the artery turns outwards, beneath and slightly anterior to the eye, and divides into a branch to the large maxillary barblet and another to the mandible. 426 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The latter divides and sends a branch backwards and another for- wards along the outer dorsal surface of tlie mandible. The A. carotis interna (PI. VIII. Fig. 1, c. in.) arises from the anterior surface of the first branchial vein close to the carotis externa, and passes forwards along the side of the skull. A short distance from its origin it thickens into a gland-like structure (p s) nearly 8 mm. long and 3 mm. wide in the middle and tapering towards both ends. This orsan is exposed from the roof of the mouth by dissecting away the adductor arcus palatini from its attachment to the side of the skull. From this surface (ventral) the channel of the artei-y is distinctly seen passing directly through it from end to end Transverse sec- tions show that the wall of the vessel is thickly perforated throughout the length of the organ by small openings of vessel-like passages (Fig. 2, b), which are quickly lost in the fine interspaces of the con- nective tissue of which the thickening is formed. Scattered through it are seen the small arteries by which the blood is again collected from the interspaces (Fig. 3, a). An examination of the position and relations of this structure leaves no doubt but that it is the remains of the j)seiodobranchia which has become reduced to a mere rete mirahile. It is worthy of note in connection with its reduced state in Amiurns, that Owen mentions Silurics as one of those fish in which it is entirely absent. That it is the pseudobranchia is shown bv the fact that the arteria ophthalmica magna (Fig. 1 a. o. m,) arises from its anterior dorsal surface which is in contact with the optic nerve, in company with which the artery passes to the eye. Three small arteries arise from the same surface, posterior and medial to the former, and immediately enter the braincase. These are the encephalic arteries, and their origin from the pseudobi-anchia is unknown among other Teleostei} In this point, however, as also in the structure of the organ Amiurus shows a singular agreement with Acipenser.'^ As far as I am aware the pseudobranchia has not the peculiar direct relation to the cai'otid, described above, in any other fish, but is situated upon a branch of that vessel even in the sturgeon. The internal carotid supplies the adductor arcits palatini, a branch to the posterior part arising behind, and those to anterior part after 1 Dr. F. Maurer — Ein Beitrag z. Kennt. d. Pseudobranchieu d. Kuoohenflsche. Morph. ahrb. Bd. IX. Taf. XI. Owen— I. c. Vol, I. p. 489. BLOOD-VASCULAK SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIUKL'S CATUS. 4-27 the -"'essel passes through the [jseuduhrauchia. It then enters the -wide flat anterior portion of the hiaiu cavity as the nasal art<;rj (Fig. 1, n), and joins the olfactory tract at the l)ulb, from which point dividing it distributes itself to the nasal sac, and also gives a strong lateral branch to the large maxillary barblet. It is difficult to under- stand why the internal and external carotids should cross their branches in order to supply these two parts. The three arteries to the brain may be designated as anterior, anedial and posterior. (Fig. 1, ant. med. post.) The anterior runs at first beneath and then along the posterior surface of the optic nerve direct to the optic chiasma, where a trans- verse stem unites it with its fellow of the opposite side. The union of this pair and also the posterior pair in the median line closes a circidas cephalicus, but within the brain-case. From this connecting stem a small anterior and a posterior artery are given ofi' to the perilymphatic tissue of the brain-case. From the point of junction the arteries run backwards parallel to one another upon the dorsal surface of the optic tract, turn upwards behind the cerebral commis- sure, and enter respectively the right and left cerebi-al hemisphere* at their base, where they distribute themselves. The median and smallest lies behind the optic nerve and runs backwards about the angle of the floor and side of the skull, lateral to the hemisphei'es, and divides into a stem to the thalamencephalon and another to the lobus inferior. The posterior and largest lies above the former, behind and slightly above the optic nerve and runs backwards along the side of the skull in the same plane. It passes inwards along the anterior margin of the fourth nerve and gives ofl' a branch which is continual along this nerve behind the optic lobes to the anterior under surface of the cerebellum, which it enters at its base. The artery turning slightly forwards passes under the brain and joins its fellow in the median line immediately behind the saccios vasculosis, to which a vessel is at once supplied. From this point a single median stem runs backwards and ends on the medulla oblongata. Three branches from this median artery pierce the floor of the ventricle and form centres of distribution to the median and posterioi- parts of the brain. The first gives off three pairs of branches : an anterior to the inner surface of the tecta ojitica, a median to the tori semiculares distributed upon the surface covered by the tecta optica, and a posterior passing 30 428 PKOC'EEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. backwards to the lateral walls of the internal cavity of the cerebel- lum. The second supplies a pair of arteries to the tuhercula acoustica and a second pair which divide before entei-ing the lobi trigemini. The thii'd gives off a set of four branches to the jMrts behind the cerebellum. The median stem also gives a i)air of lateral branches to the audi- tory labyrinth. The artery fi-om each half of the fiist bi-anchial arch turns forward and passes through a foramen in the hypoliyal, and then tuxns back- wai'ds and outwards along a groove on the dorso-lateral margin of the ceratohyal. On reaching the epihyal it divides itself into three branches. A large branch returns along the mandible supplying it and the appended barblets ; a second branch crosses the outer surface of the epihyal to supply the bi-anchiostegal rays ; and a third pass- ing onward to the attachment of the operculum distributes itself upon it. The artei'ies from the other three pairs of arches show considerable' irregularity^ in anastomosing and giving ofi" independent branches, but the tendency is to unite in a lai-ge median stem between the pericardium and the copulas of the arches. From this hyoidean plexus all the surrounding parts are supplied. The coronary artery' divides into two stems, a dorsal and ventral, which enter the wall of the bulbus at the point of attachment of the pericardial membrane.- The thyroid artery is usually a branch of the coronary. A pair of large arteries to the hyopectorales and another pair more posterior to the 'pharyiuio-daviculares are tlie more important stems, to the muscles. All the arteries of the trunk and tail, except those to the organs within the body cavity, and those to superficial parts of the head, end in a rich capillary network in the subcutaneous connective tissue of the skin. The ability shown by these fishes to live for a considera- ble time out of water is no doubt due to aeration of the blood in these capillaries while the moiith and gill-cavity are kept closed. If the skin be moistened artificially this pei'iod can be greatly prolonged. THE VENOUS SYSTEM. The veixa caudalis arises in the tail-fin, usually by two vessels of unequal size having the same course as the arteries. It runs for- ward in the haemal canal beneath and in contact with the caudal BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 429 aitery Tlie two posterior trunk vertebrae have shoi-t and broad ' haemal arches united by a transverse piece. The caudal vein turns downwards over the posterior face of the second (sometimes the fii'st) and enters the kidney, which extends back over these arches. It then passes downwards and forwards through the substance of the kidney and near the ventral surface gives off two branches, first a right and then a left vena re')u(lis advehens, which, passing forwards and outwards, distribute their blood to the kidney. The caudal vein, leaving the kidney, is attached to the mesentery which unites the genital glands ami becomes the portal vein, running straight forward beneath the air-bladder to the liver. This arrange- ment has not been described for any of the Teleostei, as far as I am aware, and if Nicolai and Hyrtl are correct does not occur in other Siluroids. According to these observers the entire vein distributes itself to the kidney as the veria renalis advehens. The former arrangement was constant in all specimens of Amiurus cattis ex- amined by me. The posterior cardinals (vetice vertebrates posteriores of Stannius) arise in the kidney and run forward on each side of the vertebral column. As in other Teleosts the left vein is very small in com- parison with the right, which, by a median stem, drains almost the entire kidney, and issuing upon its anterior concave surface passes upward and to the right, to the side of the vertebral column, where it forms a large sinus-like vessel. The left cardinal receives only a few branches from the horn of the kidney upon that side. Upon reach- ing the fourth vertebra they narrow to pass through a ti'iangular foramen formed by the body of the vertebra at the side, the trans- verse process above and an oblique bony ledge below. Having passed through they turn downwards through the head-kidney and join the anterior cardinals. The veins which drain into the ve/ia caudalis, do not requii-e any special description, but when this vein leaves its position beneath the aorta upon entering the body, it causes its branches to vary also from the branches of the latter. The portal vein receives the genital veins in its passage between these organs. It then passes above and in contact with the spleen receiving the splenic veins. This point also forms a sort of nucleus for the entry of a number of veins from the left mesenteric fold. Those on the right unite into a mesenteric vein which in some speci- 430 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. mens curving upwards and backwai-ds crosses and joins the portal at this nucleus ; in others, however, it continnes straight forward on the right of the stomach and joins the portal vein near its termina- tion in the liver. The vence intercostales opposite to the kidney enter that gland near its ventral margin, but those more anterior consist of a dorsal and ventral branch which unite in a horizontal stem on a level with the ventral sui'face of the air-bladder. This stem consists of an anterior and a posterior branch, which unite into a transverse stem across the mesentery covei'ing the ventral surface of the air-bladder, the right to the right mesenteric vein, and the left to enter the portal vein immediately in front of the spleen. The tnost anterior pair of intercostal veins enter the head-kidney at its dorso-lateral angle. The poi'tal vein continues forward to the median side of the left posterior lobe of the liver, to which it gives a branch and continues to give off bi'anches as it passes around the posterior margin of the gland below the oesophagus to terminate in two l^ranches to the right lobe. The gastric veins from the stomach enter the portal vein at various points as it curves around between the stomach and the liver. Sometimes they miss the portal vein and enter the liver direct. The .hej)atic veins arise by small bi*anches opening directly into large sinus-like vessels which run downwards and forwards to meet in the median line and ])ierce the aponeurotic membrane just above the coracoids, where it is in contact with the sinus veiiosus. The latter has but a single opening for the hepatic veins, but the division between them extends quite up to the aponeurotic membi-ane. The neuial and lateral segmental veins above the body cavity unite in a vein in the neural canal, which discharges itself into the pos- terior cardinals by a pair of vessels between the transverse processes of the fourth and fifth vertebra?. The highly modified region be- tween the dorsal fin and the skull has special venous connections which will be described below. The veins from the tin-rays enter a venous sinus or large vessel in the canal at the base, from which the blood is drained by several of the ordinary veins. The anterior cardinals arise by branches from the mandible, max- illa, M. adductor mandibular, the operculum, and doi-so-lateral surface of the skull generally. These branches enter at the orbit, and unitiiig, run along the ventral surface of the R. raandibvilaris trigemini. It BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 431 recieivcs a large branch from the nasal region as well as small blanches from the roof of the month. Reaching the skull it turns backwanls, as a large sinus-like vessel, along its side above and closely attached to the bi-anchial veins, and medial to the M. lev. branchiales, from which it receives three O)* four small veins. The cavity of the skull is drained by a ))air of veins which arise in the nasal sac and pass inwards to unite by a transverse stem before jiassing back along the dorso-lateral line of the wall. Usually one of these veins — sometimes the right and sometimes the left — becontes greatly reduced, and even disappears posteriorly to the transverse stem. They again unite over the anterior end of the cerebral hemispheres. and, continuing backwards, receive a number of veins and unite a third time on the posterior wall, completing a second venous cii'cle. This circle receives a pair of veins fi-oin the auditoiy lal)yrinths, and a median impair vein fi'om the ilorsal surface of the spinal cord. The A^eins leave the brain-case, along with the rami laterales tri- gemini, througli the su}uaoccij:)ital and turn at once downward along the lateral surface of its spine. As it issues from the brain-case each vein receives a vessel from the dorsal mixsculature as far back as the spine of the fourth vertebia. Again, at the transverse pi'ocess of the supraclavicle, it receives a vessel, which, arising in the dorsal fin, descends along the anterior surface of the spine of the fourth verte- bra, and runs forward above the latter. The vein then turns out- wards and forwards, and enters the anterior cardinal. At this point the anterior cardinal tui'ns outwards and downwards upon the antei'ior surface of the aponeurotic membrane to join the posterior cardinal immediately upon its leaving the head-kidney, and from the truncus transversus or ductus Cuoieri. The ductus runs downwards and slightly forwards upon the membrane and beneath the (fsophagus to meet its fellow in the median line, and form with the hepatic veins the sinus venosus. The vein draining the hyoidean region, called by vStannius^ vena jaguloris iaffrior, arises in the branchiostegal rays and runs for- wards along the median margin of the epi- and ceratohyals. Anteriorly to the pericardial chamber the veins of both sides usually unite in a single vein on the left side, surrounded by the thyroid gland, but, in passing around and above the pericardial chamber, a small vein 1 hoc. cit, p. 249. 432 PROCKEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. drains the right side, and, like its fellow, enters the ductus Cuvieri at the sinus venosics. THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. THE SPLEEN. This organ lies in Amiurus, between the posterior end of the stomach and the anterior end of the genital organs. It is in contact with the peritoneum covering the ventral surface of the air-bladder, and is itself surrounded by pei-itoneum. The long axis of the gland which is parallel to the same axis of the body, measui'es when the organ is distended 20 mm., the short diameter 13 mm. It Ls slightly divided into two lobes, a posterior large lobe and an anterior small lobe. The suiface next the air-bladder is concave, the ventral sur- face convex. The right margin, which lies near the median line of the body, is thick and rounded, but the gland thins out toward the left margin where the points of the lobes nearly touch the left body wall. The hilum is on the concave dorsal surface where the artery and veins enter together, and run side by side throughout the gland until the tiner branches are reached. This arrangement agrees with that of the higher Vertebrates, but it is not universal in fishes, e. g., AayitiUa}, in which the arteries lie across the veins. The vessels spi-ead themselves out, fan-like, from three or four trunk-stems, but these in the case of the veins do not unite into a single splenic vein but enter sepajately the poi'tal vein, which runs in immediate contact with the surface of the gland. Indeed, one commonly finds three or four patches of suiall openings close together in the wall of the portal vein, the larger branches of each centre having entered without join- ing. A small vein iisually aiises from the ventral surface of the anterior lobe, ami may enter the portal vein direct or join one of the mesenteric veins just before its junction with the portal. The surface of the spleen presents a perfectly smooth appearance in some individuals, while in others raised papilla? are visible to the naked eye. In the former granular-looking nodules can be seen thickly imbedded in a clear, reddish matrix, while in the latter they are much less distinct. The reason for this difierence will be better understood after a description of the internal structure. I C. PhisaUx — Stnictiiie et texture de la rate, chez VAnguilla communU. Coraptes Rendus 1884, Vol. XCVII., I). li)0. BLOOD-VASOULAR SYSTKM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 433 Tn a section through the spleen of a young fish, (one year old, judg- ing by its size), it is seen to be surrounded by a delicate connective ■tissue capsule (PI. VIII., Fig. 4. c). At a few points delicate pro- cesses pass into the sixbstance of the gland. In the gland substance the Malpif/hian corpnsclfs (Fig. 4, ?h.c.) varying in size and form according to the direction in which they are c\it, occur evenly and thickly throughout, surrounded by a very openly reticulate pulp tis- sue. The larger veins and ar-teries lie togethei', and in many in- stances the artery lies wholly within the lumen of the vein, appear- ing as if attached to the inner surface of its wall. A. most noticeable feature is the small patch of brown pigment in the majority of the Malpighian corpuscles to which they ai-e strictly confined, nevei' being found in the pi dp. When we examine the pulp-tissue with a power of about 600 dia., it is seen to consist of large plate-like nucleated cells, (PI. VIII, Fig. 7, a) which unite with one another by bi-anched pi'ocesses enclosing lai'ge vesicular spaces (PL VIII., Fig. 5, v. s.) To their surfaces are attached a few lymj^hoid cells similar to those of the corpuscle, be- sides adherent blood-cells. This reticulate tissue is continued through "the corpuscles and attached to the vessels, although this is difficult to make out, because in the Malpighian corpuscles the spaces are almost completely tilled with lymphoid cells, except next the artery '(Fig. 5, .'«), where there are often spaces as in higher forms. The lymphoid cells of the Malpighian corpuscles vary greatly iii size and shape (Fig. 7, d), but the bulk of the tissue is made up of veiy small cells with a nucleus which nearly tills the interior. This tissue seems to accompany and surround all the branches of the artery. The brown pigment consists of amorphous gi'anules which may at- tain a size of 1 2.4 , a, but are usually smaller. These pigment granules are formed in cells which when full of piginent measure about 15*5;m. It is only in a few cases that the surrounding cell can be seen ; as a rule it has disappeared, leaving the granules adherent in a mass, (Fig. 7, b) or allowing them to be scattered in the tissue, (Fig. 5, g). So marked is the ditference between a section of the spleen of a young tish and that of an old one, that at first sight they would •scarcely be recognized as from the same animal. The place occu- pied by the pulp (Fig. 4), has been filled by a dense connective tis- sue stroma which divides the gland into lobules as seen in section. 434 PROOKEDINOS OF THK CANADIAN I.VSTITUTK. These loVjiiles ap])ear to reineseut the Malpighian corpuscles. In the- angles betM'een them the connective tissue fibres sepai'ate so as to- leave small spaces in which a few blood-cells are to be seen. (Fig. 6, i). The brown pigment patches have increased in size so as in many in- stances to entirely conceal the tissue surrounding the artery, and render its nature difficult of determination. In places where there is no- pigment, (Fig. 6) the endotheloid cells are visible, covered by only a few lymphoid cells, and so they i-ather resemble the pulp. The thickness of the stroma between the lobules varies from 6-4 to 55 '8//, and the- average diameter of the enclosed spaces is 220 /jl. This connective tissue forms a thick layer beneath the outer capsule, from which it is easily distinguished by its lesser density.. As its fibres pass inwards between each outer Malpighian corpuscle, they draw the capsule slightly after them and give in section a wavy outline and the appearance of minute papilla; on the surface, referred to above. The difference in transparency is readily accounted for by the difference between connective tissue and large numbers of vesicu- lar spaces filled with blood. I regret that the short time at my disposal for the preparation of this paper has prevented my preparing sections from a large number of specimens so as to examine the steps in the change. Fig. 4, sL, sliows a trace of the beginning in the pulp. The difierence was also noticeable in making preparations of the vessels, for while in the one case the substance of the gland was readily removed by a camel's- hair brush, in the other it was tough and difficult to clear away. The most marked difference between the spleen of Amiwus and the same organ in higher Vertebrata is the absence of any structure corresponding to the trabf^culm. THE THYROID GLAND. In Aiiuartis this organ occupies the exact position described for it by Stannius' in the Ganoids and many Teleosts, viz., beneath the copulae of the branchial arches and surrounding the anterior end of the branchial artery. It is an impair structure extending in the median line from the origin of the vessels to the first pair of gill arches to a short distance behind the origin of the single stem for the third and fourth pairs of arches. Although richly supplied witli blood it appears of a whitish colour contrasted with the blood vessels- 1 /.oe. cit., page 2-55. BLOOD-VASCULAK SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 435 among whicli it lies. The fvaiiie work of the organ consists of loose connective tissue which does not foiun a limiting membrane, but simply passes over into the like tissue sheathing the adjacent parts and the vessels which it surrounds. (PI. VIII., Fig. 8.) The nsual vesicles of the thyroid are scattered throughout this connective tissue, showing a tendency to arrange themselves in short rows. They vary in size from 15 ii to 210 a in diametei-, and are filled with the usual colloid substance. A few, however, contain a granular substance with nuclei, showing nucleoli scattered through it, while others are part filled with the granular and part with the colloid matter. In the preparation from which Fig. 8 was drawn the colloid matter did not completely fill the vesicles which was probably due to the action of the reagents. The wall of the vesicle consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium resting on a basement membrane formed from the sur- rounding connective tissue. The epithelium is readily made out in the young fish, but in the gland from which the section is figured it had almost entirely disappeared. A few brown pigment granules Avere observed. In the youngest specimens (lo mm. long) of which I have sections the gland is A'ery small, and tlie connective tissue is unattached to any of the neighbouring structures. The vesicles are confined to a, few spots and form only a single row. THE THYMUS GLAND. Considerable interest has centred in the question of the existence of a thymus gland in fishes. Following Stannius' desci'i))tion of its position in the haddock,' careful seai'ch was made foi- the gland by dissections on adult fishes but without success. It was afterwards observed and figured by Prof. Wiight in sections thi'ough the head of a young fish (PI. IV., Figs. 12 and 13, TJi.), where it is quite a conspicuous object. This spot was again examined in the adult, and a slight thickening discovered upon the inner surface of the lining membrane of the gill-chamber, in most cases presenting the appear- ance of fat-tissue. As, however, it is imjjossible to define the gland by dissection on the adult, a description will be given from transverse sections of a young fish. 1 Miillei's An-liiT, 1850, p. 504. 436 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. The gland lies between the epithelium and connective tissue of the lining membrane of the gill-chamber in its ])Osterior dorsal por- tion. The bulk of the organ lies above the dorso-median angle of the chamber extending upwards as a lobe between the trapezius and lev. hranchiales muscles, and attaining a thickness of 700 /x, or eighteen times that of the epithelium, and one-tenth of the vertical median diameter of this part of the head. From this thickening the gland thins out laterally and medially terminating on a line with the floor of the brain-case. Its anterior margin is on a line with the third branchial arch, and it terminates behind, slightly in fi-ont of the transverse process of the supraclavicle. The cavity in the glard, shown in the tigui-es, is a mere split in the tissue and without a limiting membrane. The substance of the gland consist of connective tissue fibres mostly parallel to the epithelium and small round nucleated cells not larger than 4 ix. They are readily distinguished from the epithelial cells with which they are in contact by their smaller size and the deeper stain imparted to them by various reagents. There are no blood spaces and the tissue is homogeneous throughout, except that it is looser toward the centre of the gland where the split occurs. The gland was secured in the adult by removing the entire mem- brane and examined by cutting sections. The greatest thickness observed in four specimens was exactly that given above for the young fish, and it may be safely stated that in the full giown fish it is absolutely smaller. The connective tissue covering it above con- tains fat cells, and at places exceeds the gland in thickness. It sends processes through to the epithelium at right angles to its sur- face. This reticulate connective tissue appears to gradually increase while the cellular elements decrease, and in [)laces undergo fatty degeneration. The thymus gland in Amiurus is, therefore, an embryonic struc- ture, while the thyroid developes and is functional in the adult animal. The former is, no doubt, developed as a diverticulum from the epithelium of the branchial cavity as the latter is from the mouth. It is interesting to find a member of such an old family as the Siluroids possessing all those structures (pseudobranchia thyroid ■'thymus and head-kidney) which are not, according to our present knowledge, constant in their occurrence in fishes, and have been BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 437 frequently confounded. The condition of the pseudobranchia and thymus in the adult would suggest the probability that an examina- tion of the embryonic and young stages of those fishes in which they have not been found would show rudiments to be present. THE SUPRARENAL BODIES. In view of the i-elationsliip of these bodies to the sympathetic nervous system as established l)y the studies of Leydig, Semper and Balfour on their development, an apology is due for placing them in relation to what are considered blood-glands. The sympathetic system, however, has not been examined, nor yet the relation of these bodies to it ; and further, many persons still hold that their function is to effect some change upon the blood. This point will be noticed further on. The suprarenal bodies occupy in Amiurus catus a position similar to that which HyrtP found obtaining in other Siluroids. They are represented by a single pair lying one on each side of the kidney imbedded in its lateral surface, where they are readily distinguisha- ble as small white spots in the dark red gland. Sometimes, how- ever, the kidney substance having pressed in between them and the body-wall they are entirely concealed. No definite position can be assigned to these bodies with reference to the surface of the kidney, but they always lie near a pair of renal arteries which vary their course upon the middle third of the latei-al wall. One series of sections showed the suprarenal body lying in a fork of the artery, with its capsule so intimately joined to the wall of the latter that their limits could not be defined. A branch from this artery su])- plies the organ with blood. It is not uncommon to find instead of a single body two or even three bodies on one or both sides. I regard these as divisions of the simple one, because they are always smaller and are related to branches of the same artery. Further, when a suprarenal body has been macerated in Miiller's fluid it shows a tendency to divide into two or three parts. These division lines were seen in section as processes of connective tissue from the capsule. It would appear, however, from the observations of Stannius that these structures may vary greatly in number in individuals of the same species, and arise in an > Das uropoetische System der Knochenfische. Sitz. Wiener Akail. 1851. 438 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. indei)enilent manner. The form varies from round to oval, and the- size ranges from 1 mm. to nearly 3 mm. through the long diameter. The suprarenal bodies are separated from the su Instance of the kidney in which they lie not only by their own capsule but also by that of tiie kidney, the two being however united as one throughout almost the whole extent of surface lying in contact. This double wall does not measure more than lO'S/^Lat the thickest part. As mentioned above, it sends in at various points processes in which the stems of the blood-vessels run. The interior of the organ is made up of lobules or alveoli, each one being enclosed in a delicate but distinct tibrous capsule joined to those adjacent so as only to appear distinct in certain angles. This partition wall does not average nioi-e than i'O ;j. in thickness. The lobules are more or less oblong in form, from 26 '4 to 6G2 fi thick and 200 m as greatest length. The diameter varies in the same lobule, and they ax'e frequently bent upon themselves at one end. No part of the body is marked off from the rest either by the form^ size, or arrangement of the lobules. If these correspond to the divisions of the cortex in the suprarenal of higher vertebi'ates the medullary portion is entirely absent. The contents of the alveoli are granular nucleated cells of varying form and size (PI. VIII. Fig. 11), the longest being nearly 40 // and Irequently reaching from wall to wall. After studying a number of sections, I am forced to the conclusion that the large and the small cells have no fixed relations. Some alveoli appear to be composed entirely of long cells arranged parallel to one another, with spaces between their outer pointed ends ; othei's show an almost homogeneous granular matrix contain- ing nuclei, the limits of whose cells can rarely be defined. A com- bination of these is the commonest arrangement, where the long cells being arranged as before with the axis at right angles to the long axt of the alveolus, the smaller cells are fitted in between. A compara- tively regular row of nuclei around the margin gives in many instances the appearance of a lumen and epithelial lining, especially in teased i)reparations, but in section the true structure is easily dis- cerned. In the alveoli of the lateral portion of the body, where the cell limits were least defined, a number of small round, oval or ti'iangular cells were distributed, principally uj)on the margin. (PI. VIII. Fig.. IJLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 439 11, B). Tliey stain deeply and evenly throughout like the nuclei of tlie blood cells or the nucleoli of the ordinary supi-arenal cells, but are larger and more irregular in form. They are most probiibly small ganglion cells. The blood-vessels of the bodies are small and the capillaries do not seem to be abundant, which exjdains their pale color. The blood supply seems no more than sufficient for the nourishment of func- tionally active organs of their size.* Mr. Weldon^ lately suggested that these bodies are probably related to the kidney and perform some function in connection with the elaboration of the blood. My observations upon Amiurits, although imperfect, ai-e opposed to such conclusions. The smallness of the blood supply, the absence of ducts and of all stored up remains of its action, such as the brown pigment of the kidney, head-kidney and spleen, or the colloid matter of the thyroid, and also its structui-e, mark it off from the other blood-glands. He further remarks : " In Teleostei supra- renals are at all events frequently absent ; or, as I would rather suggest, they are represented by the greatly metamorphosed head- kidney described by Balfour. In other cases where suprarenals have been detected, they have always been attached to the surface of the kidney." In regard to the first point, we have in the cat-fish a well developed head- kidney in which the metamorphosis can be traced and which pi-eserves its relation to the renal-portal system, and pi-esents the characteristics of a blood-gland. The position upon the surface of the kidney is no doulit due to the development of the latter causing it to press upon the body and carry it outward upon its surface. It is certainly neither connected with the kidney nor yet with its blood-vascular system in the adult, whatever may be its developmental relationships. Certain other gland-like structures ai'e attached to the walls of the veins in the body cavity. They wei-e observed in sections of the head-kidney surrounding the cai'dinal vein, but are specially aljundant on the portal vein between the spleen and the liver. They are small white bodies varying in size and form, sometimes appearing small and rounded upon the side of the vessel, sometimes forming a * Note. — In teased jireparations the blood cells bear a very small jiroportion to the other cells. 1 Quart. Jour. Mic. Sc, N. S., Vol. XXTV., p. 176. 440 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTIRUTE. complete ring ai-ound it. The laigent and most constant of these bodies lies on the right side between the gall-bladder and spleen and close to the mesenteric artery. It does not surround any large ves- sel, but like the rest of these bodies is well supplied with blood. Where these bodies were cut in sections through the head-kidney and spleen they closely resembled the suprarenal bodies in their histological structuie, but in sections through others the difference was quite marked. The most important feature was the presence of spaces surrounded by a connective tissue wall, and having either a process or a central mass of the ordinary tissue connected by small processes with the sun-ounding wall. The blood-vessels pass to the centre through these. The interspaces seem to be occupied by a loose unattached tissue. It seems probable from the relationship of these structures to the surface of the veins that they belong to the lymphatic system, and as I am unable at present to investigate this part of the vascular system of Amiurits, I shall say nothing further in regard to them. THE URO-GENITAL SYSTEM. THE KIDNEY. The kidney has been carefully described in a number of Siluroids by HyrtP. Although this organ in Amiurus agrees closely with these — especially with that of Silurus glanis — it will not be out of place to give a somewhat detailed account of it in this paper. It is divided into an anterior lymphatic portion, the ' head-kidney' and a posterior portion, the functional or true kidney. These two divisions are separated by the entii'e length of the air-bladder, around the anterior and posterior ends of which they mould themselves. These three organs fill the entire dorsal portion of the body cavity from the aponeurotic membrane of the pectoral girdle to its posterior extremity, and present a smooth level ventral surface covered by peritoneum. The head-kidney {pronephros), is a paired organ, the two halves of which are joined by a bridge of gland substance crossing beneath the first, second and third vertebrae. The bulk of the gland lies above 'this bridge, filling the space between the transverse process ot the 1 8itz. Weiner Akd. 1851. BLOOD-VASCULAK SYSTEM, ETC., OF AMIURUS CATUS. 441 supraclavicle and the transverse jjrocess of the fourtli vertebra. From this thick rounded dorsal portion it gradually thins ovit ven- trally an^. Its length is about double its width, but the actual size varies in different individuals. It opens into the wide urethra, which is about 12 mn\. in length, and opens on a papilla behind the anus. The large vessels and ducts of the kidney, to which reference has already been made, occupy the following